Retrieval

Setup

import datasets
import math
from functools import cache
import numpy as np

Dataset

This is a dataset with Wikipedia articles that mention Northeastern University. See the Obscure Questions HW for more information about it.

nuwiki = datasets.load_dataset("nuprl/engineering-llm-systems", "wikipedia-northeastern-university", split="test")

Term Frequency

Term frequency is a measure of how often a term appears in a document. It’s a simple but effective way to gauge the importance of a term within a document.

We implement two functions:

1. term_frequency(term: str, document: str) -> float:
   • Calculates the term frequency for a given term in a document.
   • Returns the logarithm of the count if the term appears, or 0 if it doesn’t.
   • Using the logarithm helps to dampen the effect of high-frequency terms.
2. single_term_frequency_query(term: str, n: int) -> List[Dict]:
   • Ranks documents based on the term frequency of a given term.
   • Returns the top N documents where the term appears most frequently.
   • Utilizes the term_frequency function for scoring each document.

These functions provide a basic foundation for text-based information retrieval, allowing us to find documents that are most relevant to a given term.

def term_frequency(term:str, document: str):
    count = document.count(term)
    return math.log(count) if count > 0 else 0

def single_term_frequency_query(term: str, n: int):
    # Rank documents by term frequency and return top N
    ranked_docs = sorted(
        nuwiki,
        key=lambda doc: term_frequency(term, doc['text']),
        reverse=True
    )
    return ranked_docs[:n]

For the term "computer", the top 10 documents:

single_term_frequency_query("computer", 10)

[{'id': '91256',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer%20and%20network%20surveillance',
  'title': 'Computer and network surveillance',
  'text': 'Computer and network surveillance is the monitoring of computer activity and data stored locally on a computer or data being transferred over computer networks such as the Internet. This monitoring is often carried out covertly and may be completed by governments, corporations, criminal organizations, or individuals. It may or may not be legal and may or may not require authorization from a court or other independent government agencies. Computer and network surveillance programs are widespread today and almost all Internet traffic can be monitored.\n\nSurveillance allows governments and other agencies to maintain social control, recognize and monitor threats or any suspicious activity, and prevent and investigate criminal activities. With the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program, technologies such as high-speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of citizens.\n\nMany civil rights and privacy groups, such as Reporters Without Borders, the Electronic Frontier Foundation, and the American Civil Liberties Union, have expressed concern that increasing surveillance of citizens will result in a mass surveillance society, with limited political and/or personal freedoms. Such fear has led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T. The hacktivist group Anonymous has hacked into government websites in protest of what it considers "draconian surveillance".\n\nNetwork surveillance\n\nThe vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of personal data and traffic on the Internet. For example, in the United States, the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act mandates that all phone calls and broadband internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) be available for unimpeded, real-time monitoring by Federal law enforcement agencies.\n\nPacket capture (also known as "packet sniffing") is the monitoring of data traffic on a network. Data sent between computers over the Internet or between any networks takes the form of small chunks called packets, which are routed to their destination and assembled back into a complete message. A packet capture appliance intercepts these packets, so that they may be examined and analyzed. Computer technology is needed to perform traffic analysis and sift through intercepted data to look for important/useful information. Under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all U.S. telecommunications providers are required to install such packet capture technology so that Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies are able to intercept all of their customers\' broadband Internet and voice over Internet protocol (VoIP) traffic.\n\nThere is far too much data gathered by these packet sniffers for human investigators to manually search through. Thus, automated Internet surveillance computers sift through the vast amount of intercepted Internet traffic, filtering out, and reporting to investigators those bits of information which are "interesting", for example, the use of certain words or phrases, visiting certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or chat with a certain individual or group. Billions of dollars per year are spent by agencies such as the Information Awareness Office, NSA, and the FBI, for the development, purchase, implementation, and operation of systems which intercept and analyze this data, extracting only the information that is useful to law enforcement and intelligence agencies.\n\nSimilar systems are now used by Iranian Security dept. to identify and suppress dissidents. All of the technology has been allegedly installed by German Siemens AG and Finnish Nokia.\n\nThe Internet\'s rapid development has become a primary form of communication. More people are potentially subject to Internet surveillance. There are advantages and disadvantages to network monitoring. For instance, systems described as "Web 2.0" have greatly impacted modern society. Tim O’ Reilly, who first explained the concept of "Web 2.0", stated that Web 2.0 provides communication platforms that are "user generated", with self-produced content, motivating more people to communicate with friends online. However, Internet surveillance also has a disadvantage. One researcher from Uppsala University said "Web 2.0 surveillance is directed at large user groups who help to hegemonically produce and reproduce surveillance by providing user-generated (self-produced) content. We can characterize Web 2.0 surveillance as mass self-surveillance". Surveillance companies monitor people while they are focused on work or entertainment. Yet, employers themselves also monitor their employees. They do so in order to protect the company\'s assets and to control public communications but most importantly, to make sure that their employees are actively working and being productive. This can emotionally affect people; this is because it can cause emotions like jealousy. A research group states "...we set out to test the prediction that feelings of jealousy lead to ‘creeping’ on a partner through Facebook, and that women are particularly likely to engage in partner monitoring in response to jealousy". The study shows that women can become jealous of other people when they are in an online group.\n\nThe virtual assistant(AI) has become a social integration into lives. Currently, virtual assistants such as Amazon\'s Alexa or Apple\'s Siri cannot call 911 or local services. They are constantly listening for command and recording parts of conversations that will help improve algorithms. If the law enforcement is able to be called using a virtual assistant, the law enforcement would then be able to have access to all the information saved for the device. The device is connected to the home\'s internet, because of this law enforcement would be the exact location of the individual calling for law enforcement. While the virtual assistance devices are popular, many debates the lack of privacy. The devices are listening to every conversation the owner is having. Even if the owner is not talking to a virtual assistant, the device is still listening to the conversation in hopes that the owner will need assistance, as well as to gather data.\n\nCorporate surveillance\n\nCorporate surveillance of computer activity is very common. The data collected is most often used for marketing purposes or sold to other corporations, but is also regularly shared with government agencies. It can be used as a form of business intelligence, which enables the corporation to better tailor their products and/or services to be desirable by their customers. The data can also be sold to other corporations so that they can use it for the aforementioned purpose, or it can be used for direct marketing purposes, such as targeted advertisements, where ads are targeted to the user of the search engine by analyzing their search history and emails (if they use free webmail services), which are kept in a database.\n\nSuch type of surveillance is also used to establish business purposes of monitoring, which may include the following:\n Preventing misuse of resources. Companies can discourage unproductive personal activities such as online shopping or web surfing on company time. Monitoring employee performance is one way to reduce unnecessary network traffic and reduce the consumption of network bandwidth.\n Promoting adherence to policies. Online surveillance is one means of verifying employee observance of company networking policies.\n Preventing lawsuits. Firms can be held liable for discrimination or employee harassment in the workplace. Organizations can also be involved in infringement suits through employees that distribute copyrighted material over corporate networks.\n Safeguarding records. Federal legislation requires organizations to protect personal information. Monitoring can determine the extent of compliance with company policies and programs overseeing information security. Monitoring may also deter unlawful appropriation of personal information, and potential spam or viruses.\n Safeguarding company assets. The protection of intellectual property, trade secrets, and business strategies is a major concern. The ease of information transmission and storage makes it imperative to monitor employee actions as part of a broader policy.\nThe second component of prevention is determining the ownership of technology resources. The ownership of the firm\'s networks, servers, computers, files, and e-mail should be explicitly stated. There should be a distinction between an employee\'s personal electronic devices, which should be limited and proscribed, and those owned by the firm.\n\nFor instance, Google Search stores identifying information for each web search. An IP address and the search phrase used are stored in a database for up to 18 months. Google also scans the content of emails of users of its Gmail webmail service in order to create targeted advertising based on what people are talking about in their personal email correspondences. Google is, by far, the largest Internet advertising agency—millions of sites place Google\'s advertising banners and links on their websites in order to earn money from visitors who click on the ads. Each page containing Google advertisements adds, reads, and modifies "cookies" on each visitor\'s computer. These cookies track the user across all of these sites and gather information about their web surfing habits, keeping track of which sites they visit, and what they do when they are on these sites. This information, along with the information from their email accounts, and search engine histories, is stored by Google to use to build a profile of the user to deliver better-targeted advertising.\n\nThe United States government often gains access to these databases, either by producing a warrant for it, or by simply asking. The Department of Homeland Security has openly stated that it uses data collected from consumer credit and direct marketing agencies for augmenting the profiles of individuals that it is monitoring.\n\nMalicious software\n\nIn addition to monitoring information sent over a computer network, there is also a way to examine data stored on a computer\'s hard drive, and to monitor the activities of a person using the computer. A surveillance program installed on a computer can search the contents of the hard drive for suspicious data, can monitor computer use, collect passwords, and/or report back activities in real-time to its operator through the Internet connection. A keylogger is an example of this type of program. Normal keylogging programs store their data on the local hard drive, but some are programmed to automatically transmit data over the network to a remote computer or Web server.\n\nThere are multiple ways of installing such software. The most common is remote installation, using a backdoor created by a computer virus or trojan. This tactic has the advantage of potentially subjecting multiple computers to surveillance.  Viruses often spread to thousands or millions of computers, and leave "backdoors" which are accessible over a network connection, and enable an intruder to remotely install software and execute commands. These viruses and trojans are sometimes developed by government agencies, such as CIPAV and Magic Lantern. More often, however, viruses created by other people or spyware installed by marketing agencies can be used to gain access through the security breaches that they create.\n\nAnother method is "cracking" into the computer to gain access over a network. An attacker can then install surveillance software remotely. Servers and computers with permanent broadband connections are most vulnerable to this type of attack. Another source of security cracking is employees giving out information or users using brute force tactics to guess their password.\n\nOne can also physically place surveillance software on a computer by gaining entry to the place where the computer is stored and install it from a compact disc, floppy disk, or thumbdrive.  This method shares a disadvantage with hardware devices in that it requires physical access to the computer. One well-known worm that uses this method of spreading itself is Stuxnet.\n\nSocial network analysis\nOne common form of surveillance is to create maps of social networks based on data from social networking sites as well as from traffic analysis information from phone call records such as those in the NSA call database, and internet traffic data gathered under CALEA. These social network "maps" are then data mined to extract useful information such as personal interests, friendships and affiliations, wants, beliefs, thoughts, and activities.\n\nMany U.S. government agencies such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the National Security Agency (NSA), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) are currently investing heavily in research involving social network analysis. The intelligence community believes that the biggest threat to the U.S. comes from decentralized, leaderless, geographically dispersed groups. These types of threats are most easily countered by finding important nodes in the network, and removing them. To do this requires a detailed map of the network.\n\nJason Ethier of Northeastern University, in his study of modern social network analysis, said the following of the Scalable Social Network Analysis Program developed by the Information Awareness Office:\n\nMonitoring from a distance\nWith only commercially available equipment, it has been shown that it is possible to monitor computers from a distance by detecting the radiation emitted by the CRT monitor. This form of computer surveillance, known as TEMPEST, involves reading electromagnetic emanations from computing devices in order to extract data from them at distances of hundreds of meters.\n\nIBM researchers have also found that, for most computer keyboards, each key emits a slightly different noise when pressed. The differences are individually identifiable under some conditions, and so it\'s possible to log key strokes without actually requiring logging software to run on the associated computer.\n\nIn 2015, lawmakers in California passed a law prohibiting any investigative personnel in the state to force businesses to hand over digital communication without a warrant, calling this Electronic Communications Privacy Act. At the same time in California, state senator Jerry Hill introduced a bill making law enforcement agencies to disclose more information on their usage and information from the Stingray phone tracker device. As the law took into effect in January 2016, it will now require cities to operate with new guidelines in relation to how and when law enforcement use this device. Some legislators and those holding a public office have disagreed with this technology because of the warrantless tracking, but now if a city wants to use this device, it must be heard by a public hearing. Some cities have pulled out of using the StingRay such as Santa Clara County.\n\nAnd it has also been shown, by Adi Shamir et al., that even the high frequency noise emitted by a CPU includes information about the instructions being executed.\n\nPoliceware and govware\nIn German-speaking countries, spyware used or made by the government is sometimes called govware. Some countries like Switzerland and Germany have a legal framework governing the use of such software. Known examples include the Swiss MiniPanzer and MegaPanzer and the German R2D2 (trojan).\n\nPoliceware is a software designed to police citizens by monitoring the discussion and interaction of its citizens. Within the U.S., Carnivore was the first incarnation of secretly installed e-mail monitoring software installed in Internet service providers\' networks to log computer communication, including transmitted e-mails. Magic Lantern is another such application, this time running in a targeted computer in a trojan style and performing keystroke logging. CIPAV, deployed by the FBI, is a multi-purpose spyware/trojan.\n\nThe Clipper Chip, formerly known as MYK-78, is a small hardware chip that the government can install into phones, designed in the nineties. It was intended to secure private communication and data by reading voice messages that are encoded and decode them. The Clipper Chip was designed during the Clinton administration to, “…protect personal safety and national security against a developing information anarchy that fosters criminals, terrorists and foreign foes.” The government portrayed it as the solution to the secret codes or cryptographic keys that the age of technology created. Thus, this has raised controversy in the public, because the Clipper Chip is thought to have been the next “Big Brother” tool. This led to the failure of the Clipper proposal, even though there have been many attempts to push the agenda.\n\nThe "Consumer Broadband and Digital Television Promotion Act" (CBDTPA) was a bill proposed in the United States Congress. CBDTPA was known as the "Security Systems and Standards Certification Act" (SSSCA) while in draft form and was killed in committee in 2002. Had CBDTPA become law, it would have prohibited technology that could be used to read digital content under copyright (such as music, video, and e-books) without Digital Rights Management (DRM) that prevented access to this material without the permission of the copyright holder.\n\nSurveillance as an aid to censorship\n\nSurveillance and censorship are different. Surveillance can be performed without censorship, but it is harder to engage in censorship without some forms of surveillance. And even when surveillance does not lead directly to censorship, the widespread knowledge or belief that a person, their computer, or their use of the Internet is under surveillance can lead to self-censorship.\n\nIn March 2013 Reporters Without Borders issued a Special report on Internet surveillance that examines the use of technology that monitors online activity and intercepts electronic communication in order to arrest journalists, citizen-journalists, and dissidents. The report includes a list of "State Enemies of the Internet", Bahrain, China, Iran, Syria, and Vietnam, countries whose governments are involved in active, intrusive surveillance of news providers, resulting in grave violations of freedom of information and human rights. Computer and network surveillance is on the increase in these countries. The report also includes a second list of "Corporate Enemies of the Internet", Amesys (France), Blue Coat Systems (U.S.), Gamma (UK and Germany), Hacking Team (Italy), and Trovicor (Germany), companies that sell products that are liable to be used by governments to violate human rights and freedom of information. Neither list is exhaustive and they are likely to be expanded in the future.\n\nProtection of sources is no longer just a matter of journalistic ethics. Journalists should equip themselves with a "digital survival kit" if they are exchanging sensitive information online, storing it on a computer hard-drive or mobile phone. Individuals associated with high-profile rights organizations, dissident groups, protest groups, or reform groups are urged to take extra precautions to protect their online identities.\n\nSee also\n\n Anonymizer, a software system that attempts to make network activity untraceable\n Computer surveillance in the workplace\n Cyber spying\n Datacasting, a means of broadcasting files and Web pages using radio waves, allowing receivers near total immunity from traditional network surveillance techniques.\n Differential privacy, a method to maximize the accuracy of queries from statistical databases while minimizing the chances of violating the privacy of individuals.\n ECHELON, a signals intelligence (SIGINT) collection and analysis network operated on behalf of Australia, Canada, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, and the United States, also known as AUSCANNZUKUS and Five Eyes\n GhostNet, a large-scale cyber spying operation discovered in March 2009\n List of government surveillance projects\n Mass surveillance\n China\'s Golden Shield Project\n Mass surveillance in Australia\n Mass surveillance in China\n Mass surveillance in East Germany\n Mass surveillance in India\n Mass surveillance in North Korea\n Mass surveillance in the United Kingdom\n Mass surveillance in the United States\n Surveillance\n\n Surveillance by the United States government:\n 2013 mass surveillance disclosures, reports about NSA and its international partners\' mass surveillance of foreign nationals and U.S. citizens\n Bullrun (code name), a highly classified NSA program to preserve its ability to eavesdrop on encrypted communications by influencing and weakening encryption standards, by obtaining master encryption keys, and by gaining access to data before or after it is encrypted either by agreement, by force of law, or by computer network exploitation (hacking)\n Carnivore, a U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation system to monitor email and electronic communications\n COINTELPRO, a series of covert, and at times illegal, projects conducted by the FBI aimed at U.S. domestic political organizations\n Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act\n Computer and Internet Protocol Address Verifier (CIPAV), a data gathering tool used by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)\n Dropmire, a secret surveillance program by the NSA aimed at surveillance of foreign embassies and diplomatic staff, including those of NATO allies\n Magic Lantern, keystroke logging software developed by the U.S. Federal Bureau of Investigation\n Mass surveillance in the United States\n NSA call database, a database containing metadata for hundreds of billions of telephone calls made in the U.S.\n NSA warrantless surveillance (2001–07)\n NSA whistleblowers: William Binney, Thomas Andrews Drake, Mark Klein, Edward Snowden, Thomas Tamm, Russ Tice\n Spying on United Nations leaders by United States diplomats\n Stellar Wind (code name), code name for information collected under the President\'s Surveillance Program\n Tailored Access Operations, NSA\'s hacking program\n Terrorist Surveillance Program, an NSA electronic surveillance program\n Total Information Awareness, a project of the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA)\n TEMPEST, codename for studies of unintentional intelligence-bearing signals which, if intercepted and analyzed, may disclose the information transmitted, received, handled, or otherwise processed by any information-processing equipment\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n "Selected Papers in Anonymity", Free Haven Project, accessed 16 September 2011.\n\nComputer forensics\n \nSurveillance\nEspionage techniques'},
 {'id': '10290198',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Massachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology%20alumni',
  'title': 'List of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni',
  'text': 'This list of Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni includes students who studied as undergraduates or graduate students at MIT\'s School of Engineering; School of Science; MIT Sloan School of Management; School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences; School of Architecture and Planning; or Whitaker College of Health Sciences. Since there are more than 120,000 alumni (living and deceased), this listing cannot be comprehensive. Instead, this article summarizes some of the more notable MIT alumni, with some indication of the reasons they are notable in the world at large. All MIT degrees are earned through academic achievement, in that MIT has never awarded honorary degrees in any form.\n\nThe MIT Alumni Association defines eligibility for membership as follows:\nThe following persons are Alumni/ae Members of the Association:\n\nAll persons who have received a degree from the Institute; and\nAll persons who have been registered as students in a degree-granting program at the Institute for (i) at least one full term in any undergraduate class which has already graduated; or (ii) for at least two full terms as graduate students.\n\nAs a celebration of the new MIT building dedicated to nanotechnology laboratories in 2018, a special silicon wafer was designed and fabricated with an image of the Great Dome. This One.MIT image is composed of more than 270,000 individual names, comprising all the students, faculty, and staff at MIT during the years 1861–2018. A special website was set up to document the creation of a large wall display in the building, and to facilitate the location of individual names in the image.\n\nPolitics and public service\n\nUnited States\n\nInternational\n\nArchitecture and design\n\nChristopher Charles Benninger (MCP 1971) – award-winning architect and urban planner in India, Sri Lanka, prepared capital plan of Bhutan\nWalter Danforth Bliss – architect from California, with many buildings on the National Register of Historic Places\nGordon Bunshaft (BArch 1933, MArch 1935) – architect of Lever House (New York City), Beinecke Library (Yale), Hirshhorn Museum and Sculpture Garden (Washington DC); Pritzker Prize (1988)\nOgden Codman, Jr. (1884) – Beaux-Arts domestic architect, interior designer\nVishaan Chakrabarti (MCP 1993)— architect and dean of UC Berkeley\'s College of Environmental Design\nJohn Desmond (MArch) – designed numerous public buildings in Baton Rouge, including the River Center\n\nDaniel Chester French (1871, one year) – sculptor of Abraham Lincoln (Lincoln Memorial), John Harvard (Harvard Yard), Minute Man (Concord, Massachusetts)\nCass Gilbert (1880) – architect of the US Supreme Court Building, Woolworth Building (New York City)\nCharles Sumner Greene (1891) – partner in Greene and Greene, domestic architects of Arts & Crafts style, Gamble House (Pasadena)\nHenry Mather Greene (1891) – partner in Greene and Greene, domestic architects of Arts & Crafts style, Gamble House (Pasadena)\nMarion Mahony Griffin (1894) – co-designer of the master plan for Canberra, Australia\nNathanael Herreshoff (SB 1870) – naval architect-engineer, yacht designer\nRaymond Hood (1903) – architect of Rockefeller Center (New York City), Tribune Tower (Chicago)\nLois Lilley Howe (SB 1890) – second woman in the US to found an architecture firm\nJarvis Hunt – Chicago architect\nMyron Hunt (SB 1893) – architect of Huntington Art Gallery, Rose Bowl (Pasadena)\nPiotr Kowalski (SB 1952) – artist, sculptor, architect, professor\nRoger K. Lewis (BArch 1964; MArch 1967) – architect, urban planner, professor, author\nAustin W. Lord (1888) – architect of the administration buildings, Isthmian Canal Commission, Panama; director of the School of Architecture at Columbia University\nKevin A. Lynch (SB 1947) – urban planner, author of the seminal book The Image of the City\nJohn O. Merrill (SB 1921) – structural engineer, architect, leader of Skidmore, Owings and Merrill\nEleanor Manning O\'Connor (SB 1906) – architect, educator, public housing advocate\nI. M. Pei (BArch 1940) – architect, Louvre Pyramid (Paris), Rock and Roll Hall of Fame (Cleveland), Bank of China (Hong Kong), MIT Buildings 18, 54, 66, E15; AIA Gold Medal (1979), Pritzker Prize (1983)\nDonald W. Southgate (1887–1953) – architect in Nashville, Tennessee\nSumner Spaulding (1892–1952) – architect, graduated in 1916, designed many buildings in California\nLouis Sullivan (one year) – influential founder of the Chicago School; "father of skyscrapers"; "father of modernism"; AIA Gold Medal (1944)\nJames Knox Taylor (1880) – Supervisory Architect of Denver Mint, Philadelphia Mint, many post offices, court houses, other federal buildings\nRobert Taylor (1892) – MIT\'s first black graduate, architect of the Tuskegee Institute\nHarry Mohr Weese (BArch 1938) – architect, historic preservation advocate, designed first group of stations for Washington Metro system\n\nBusiness and entrepreneurship\nSee also List of companies founded by Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni\n\nComputers and Internet\n\nBrandon Wade (SB 1993) - Founder of Seeking Arrangement \nJoseph Alsop (SB 1967) – co-founder of Progress Software\nEfi Arazi – Israeli industrialist and businessman, founder of Scitex Corporation\nShiva Ayyadurai (SB 1987 SM 1989 SM 1990 PHD 2007) – scientist and inventor\nSanju Bansal – co-founder of MicroStrategy\nHugo Barra – VP of International for Xiaomi, former VP and product spokesman for Google Android\nKatie Bouman (PhD 2017) – developer of the algorithm used in filtering the first images of a black hole taken by the Event Horizon Telescope\nAnant Bhardwaj (Ph.D. dropout) – founder of Instabase\nLarry DeMar (SB 1979) – programmer for Williams, co-creator of Defender and Robotron: 2084, and founder of Leading Edge Design\nJohn J. Donovan (Postdoc 1969) – founder of Cambridge Technology Partners, and Open Environment Corporation\nEran Egozy Co-founder, CTO, and VP of Harmonix Systems; now clarinetist and professor of music at MIT\nArash Ferdowsi (dropped out); co-founder of CTO at Dropbox\nCarly Fiorina (SM 1989) – former CEO of Hewlett-Packard\n Philip Gale (1978–1998) – writer of TotalAccess, computer prodigy, and Internet software developer\nAndy Gavin – co-founder of Naughty Dog and creator of the first video game with a full 3D environment, Crash Bandicoot\nShuman Ghosemajumder – author of Open Music Model, click fraud czar at Google\nCecil H. Green (SB 1924, SM 1924) – co-founder of Texas Instruments\nWilliam R. Hewlett (SM 1936) – co-founder of Hewlett-Packard\nDanny Hillis (SB 1978, SM 1981, PhD 1988) – co-founder of Thinking Machines and former Disney Fellow\nMark Horowitz (SB 1978, SM 1978) – founder of Rambus\nDrew Houston – co-founder and CEO of Dropbox\nIrwin M. Jacobs (SM 1957, ScD 1959) – co-founder of Qualcomm with Andrew Viterbi, current chairman and former CEO; former MIT professor (1959–1966)\nBrewster Kahle (SB 1982) – internet archivist, founder of Alexa\nMitch Kapor – software entrepreneur, founder of Lotus Corporation\nEarl Killian – software architect with 26 patents, MIPS\nSteve Kirsch (SB 1980, SM 1980) – inventor of the optical mouse, co-founder of Frame Technology Corporation and founder of Infoseek Corporation\nAlan Kotok (SB 1962, SM 1962) – chief architect PDP-10, associate chairman World Wide Web Consortium\nPavel Krapivin (SB 2002) – co-founder of Doostang\nSusan Landau (PhD 1983) – Guggenheim Fellow and cybersecurity expert\nDaniel Lewin (SM 1998) – founder of Akamai\nJack Little (SB 1978) – co-founder of MathWorks, which created and sells MATLAB\nSonita Lontoh (M.Eng 2004) – green technology executive\nSteve Mann – co-creator of the SixthSense device\nPatrick McGovern (SB 1960) – founder of IDG/Computerworld\nSteve Meretzky (SB 1979) – computer game designer\nRobert Metcalfe (SB 1969) – entrepreneur, founder of 3Com; inventor of Ethernet\nPranav Mistry (PhD) – co-creator of the SixthSense device\nNicholas Negroponte (B.Arch, M.Arch 1966) – founder, MIT Media Lab, One Laptop per Child Association\nKathy Nelson (SB – Electrical Engineering 1993) – creator of world\'s first holographic video game\nRobert Noyce (PhD 1953) – integrated circuit pioneer, co-founder of Intel, Draper Prize (1969)\nKen Olsen (SB 1950, SM 1952) – founder of Digital Equipment Corporation\nWilliam Poduska (SB 1960, SM 1960, ScD 1962) – computer engineer and entrepreneur, founder of Prime Computer and Apollo Computer\nWilliam A. Porter (MBA 1967) – founder of E*TRADE\nAllen Razdow (SB 1976) – founder of Mathsoft Inc.; inventor of Mathcad\nAlex Rigopulos (SB 1994, SM 1994) – founder of Harmonix Music Systems, developer of Guitar Hero and Rock Band\nLarry Roberts (SB 1961, SM 1961, PhD 1963) – member of design group for original ARPANET, co-founder of Caspian Networks and Packetcom, former CEO of DHL\nSheldon Roberts (SM 1949, ScD 1952) – one of the "traitorous eight" who founded Fairchild Semiconductor; co-founder of Amelco which later became Teledyne\nDouglas T. Ross (SM 1954) – founder of SofTech, Inc.\nMichael J. Saylor – co-founder of MicroStrategy\nMegan Smith (SB 1986, SM 1988) – Google executive; former CEO of PlanetOut, early smartphones at General Magic, 3rd United States Chief Technology Officer (2014–17) \nRobert Spinrad (PhD) – computer pioneer; director of the Xerox Palo Alto Research Center\nRay Stata (SB 1958, SM 1958) – founder of Analog Devices\nLisa Su (SB 1990, SM 1991, PhD 1994) – CEO of Advanced Micro Devices\nEric Swanson – co-founder of Sycamore Networks\nTheodore Tso – Google software engineer, maintainer of the ext4 filesystem\nPhilippe Villers (SM 1960) – founder of Computervision, which is now part of Parametric Technology Corporation\nAndrew Viterbi (SB 1957, SM 1957) – electrical engineer; inventor of the Viterbi algorithm; co-founder of Qualcomm; former UCLA and UCSD professor\nChristopher Weaver (SM 1985) – founder of Bethesda Softworks and co-founder of ZeniMax Media\nMatt Denesuk (SB, 1987) - SVP, Data Analytics & AI at Royal Caribbean Group; founder of Noodle.ai, Chief Data Science Officer of GE.\n\nEngineering\n\nColin Angle – co-founder of iRobot\nSatya N. Atluri (Sc.D Aeronautics & Astronautics, 1969) – engineer; recipient of 2013 Padma Bhushan 2013, 2015 Crichlow Trust Prize from AIAA\nKarel Bossart (SM 1927) – designer of the SM-65 Atlas missile\nVanu Bose - Electrical Engineer, founder of Vanu Inc, and son of Amar Bose\nWilliam David Coolidge (SB 1896) – physicist who made major contributions to X-ray machines, director of the General Electric Research Laboratory\nCharles Stark Draper (SB 1926, SM 1928, SD 1938) – engineer and inventor; the "father of inertial navigation"; inducted into the National Inventors Hall of Fame in 1981\nHelen Greiner – co-founder of iRobot\nCharles Townsend Ludington – aviation pioneer\nFrancis "Des" Lynch (ScD Mechanical Engineering 1968) - Patented several inventions including the ideal dimple patterns for Titleist golf balls\nErnest Boyd MacNaughton (SB 1902) – bank president; president of The Oregonian; president of Reed College\nFred Mannering (PhD 1983) - professor University of South Florida; Clarivate Highly Cited Researcher\nJim Marggraff (SB Electrical Engineering, SM Computer Science) – inventor of the LeapPad Learning System, Fly pentop computer, and Livescribe smartpen\nLissa Martinez (SM 1980) – ocean engineer\nMohammad Modarres – Eminent Professor of the University of Maryland; founder of world\'s first graduate curriculum in reliability engineering\nHenry M. Paynter (SB civil engineering 1944, SM mathematics and science 1949, ScD hydroelectric engineering 1951, all MIT) – inventor of bond graphs\nNicholas A. Peppas – professor of engineering, University of Texas at Austin, pioneer in drug delivery, biomaterials, hydrogels and nanobiotechnology\nThuan Pham (SB Computer Science & Engineering 1990, SM 1991) – CTO of Uber\nRJ Scaringe (SM, PhD) – CEO of Rivian, Plymouth, Michigan, United States\nTom Scholz – founder of the rock group Boston and Scholz Research & Development, Inc., manufacturers of Rockman sound equipment\nDorian Shainin (SB 1936) – quality paradigm pioneer and guru; considered one of the world\'s foremost experts in the fields of industrial problem solving, product reliability and quality engineering; known for the creation and development of the "Red X" concept\nMareena Robinson Snowden – first Black woman to earn a Ph.D. in nuclear engineering\nSuhas Pandurang Sukhatme – former Chairman of Atomic Energy Regulatory Board of India\nChristine Taylor-Butler (civil engineering 1981) – children\'s author\n\nManufacturing and defense\n\nVaughn Beals – CEO of Harley-Davidson\nAmar Bose – founder and chairman of Bose Corporation\nWesley G. Bush – chairman, CEO and President of Northrop Grumman\nMorris Chang – chairman of the Taiwan Semiconductor Manufacturing Company (TSMC), the largest semiconductor foundry in the world\nNick DeWolf – co-founder of Teradyne\nJohn Dorrance – founder of Campbell Soup Company\nDonald Douglas – founder of Douglas Aircraft Company\nPierre S. du Pont – Du Pont Company and General Motors executive\nT. Coleman du Pont – Du Pont Company president; US Senator\nArmand V. Feigenbaum – quality expert\nWilliam Clay Ford, Jr. – chairman of Ford Motor Company\nBernardo Garza Sada – founder and president of the ALFA conglomerate of Mexico\nKenneth Germeshausen – co-founder, and the first "G", of the defense contractor EG&G\nBernard Marshall Gordon (SB 1949, SM 1949) – electrical engineer, inventor, philanthropist, co-founded Analogic Corporation, National Medal of Technology (1986)\nGeorge Hatsopoulos – founder of Thermo Electron Corporation\nCharles Koch – co-owner, Chairman and CEO of Koch Industries, the second largest private company in the US\nDavid H. Koch – co-owner of Koch Industries; Vice-Presidential candidate for the Libertarian Party\nJay Last – one of the "traitorous eight" who founded Fairchild Semiconductor; co-founder of Amelco, which became Teledyne\nJames McDonnell – co-founder of McDonnell Douglas\nAlan Mulally – president and CEO of Ford Motor Company\nWilliam Emery Nickerson – co-founder of Gillette, now part of Procter & Gamble\nWillard Rockwell – founder of Rockwell International\nHenry Singleton – founder of Teledyne\nAlfred P. Sloan, Jr. – automobile entrepreneur, former CEO of General Motors\nWong Tsu – first engineer of the Boeing Company\nUncas Whitaker – founder of AMP Incorporated (now a division of Tyco International)\nRick Woodward – president of Woodward Iron Company, owner of Birmingham Barons\n\nFinance and consulting\n\nRoger Ward Babson – entrepreneur, founder of Babson Institute (now Babson College), 1940 presidential nominee on the Prohibition Party ticket\nMichael Brennan – pioneering finance academic, former president of the American Finance Association\nRichard Carrión – CEO of Banco Popular de Puerto Rico, and of Popular, Inc.\nWesley Chan – investment partner at Google Ventures\nLisa Endlich – business author, former vice-president at Goldman Sachs\nMark Gorenberg – partner of the venture capital firm Hummer Winblad Venture Partners\nRobert C. Hancké – Belgian economist\nMichael Hammer – pioneer of Business Process Reengineering, founder of Hammer and Co.\nMansoor Ijaz – founder and chairman of Crescent Investment Management Ltd; developer of the CARAT trading system\nShantanurao Laxmanrao Kirloskar – founder of Kirloskar Group\nArthur Dehon Little – entrepreneur, founder of the eponymous management consulting firm Arthur D. Little in 1886\nMark Mobius – emerging markets investor and fund manager\nKenichi Ohmae – former director of the Japan arm of McKinsey & Company, management consultants\nTom Perkins – founder of venture capital firm Kleiner, Perkins, Caufield & Byers\nJohn S. Reed – chairman of the New York Stock Exchange\nEd Seykota – commodity trader\nJim Simons – mathematician; philanthropist; founder of Renaissance Technologies hedge fund\nJohn Thain – former CEO of Merrill Lynch, former Chief Executive Officer of the New York Stock Exchange\nWilliam Toy – director at CDC, New York and Goldman Sachs; developer of the Black–Derman–Toy interest rate model\nNigel Wilson – CEO of Legal & General\n\nHealth care and biotechnology\n\nDavid Benaron – digital health entrepreneur, physician\nGeorge A. Herzlinger - (BS, PhD physics) - medical innovation entrepreneur who invented and, with Regina, founded firms that built and sold an intra aortic balloon pump and a standard-of-care rapid infuser that have saved thousands of lives \nRegina E. Herzlinger - (BS economics) - First woman to be tenured and chaired at HBS and to serve on large corporate health care Boards of Directors, including John Deere and Cardinal Health; author of three best-selling health care trade books. Known as the "Godmother of Consumer-Driven health care."\nPaul F. Levy (SB, MCP 1974) – former president of Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center hospitals, former Executive Director of Boston\'s MWRA Harbor Cleanup project\nBernard Sherman (PhD astrophysics) – Canadian billionaire, philanthropist, and founder of Apotex\nRobert A. Swanson – co-founder of Genentech\nRon Williams – CEO of Aetna\n\nMiscellaneous\n\nDavid A. Aaker – consultant and author of Marketing\nAditya Birla – industrialist, deceased son of basant Kumar Birla and father of Kumar Mangalam who heads Aditya Birla Group\nJoseph Chung – co-founder of Art Technology Group with fellow MIT grad Jeet Singh\nJack Crichton – oil and natural gas industrialist from Texas; Republican candidate for governor in 1964\nSamuel Face – inventor and co-developer of advances in concrete and piezoelectric technologies\nVictor Kwok-king Fung – prominent Hong Kong billionaire businessman and political figure\nAntonio Galloni – Wine critic and founder of Vinous\nEugenio Garza Sada – Mexican businessman, philanthropist and founder of the Tec de Monterrey\nKrisztina "Z" Holly (SB 1989, SM 1992) - co-founder of Stylus Innovation, curator of first TEDx, founder of MIT Deshpande Center for Technological Innovation, former vice provost for innovation at University of Southern California\nJohn Legere – CEO of T-Mobile, post-graduate school, received M.S. from MIT \nNikolaos Mavridis – founder of the Interactive Robots and Media Lab\nDavid McGrath – founder of TAD Resources, now part of Adecco\nDana G. Mead – former CEO and chair of Tenneco\nHamid R. Moghadam – co-founder, chairman and CEO of Prologis\nStewart Nelson – founder of Systems Concepts\nEric P. Newman – numismatist \nArthur S. Obermayer – founder of the Moleculon Research Corporation; philanthropist\nJohn Ofori-Tenkorang – Director General of the Social Security and National Insurance Trust (SSNIT), Ghana\nGeneroso Pope – founder and owner of The National Enquirer\nAlexander N. Rossolimo – founding chairman of Center for Security and Social Progress\nMichael J. Saylor – founder of MicroStrategy\nAlan Spoon (SB 1973) – former president of The Washington Post Company\nLeelila Strogov – general assignment reporter for Fox 11 News\nRichard Tomlinson – British intelligence officer\nHelmut Weymar – founder of Commodities Corporation\n\nEducation\n\nTheodosios Alexander (publishes as Theodosios Korakianitis) (MIT graduate degrees: SM in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering 1982; SM in Ocean Systems Management; SM in Mechanical Engineering; ScD in Mechanical Engineering 1987) – Dean of Parks College of Engineering, Aviation and Technology of Saint Louis University; Professor and Chair of Energy Engineering, Queen Mary, University of London; former James Watt Professor at the University of Glasgow, Scotland; former Mechanical Engineering Professor at Washington University in St. Louis\nJoseph E. Aoun (PhD 1982) – president of Northeastern University, linguist, author\nAndrew Armacost (SM 1995, PhD 2000) – dean of the United States Air Force Academy\nDennis Assanis (SM in Naval Architecture and Marine Engineering 1983, SM in Mechanical Engineering 1983, SM in Management 1986, PhD in Power and Propulsion 1986) – former Jon R. and Beverly S. Holt Professor and Arthur F. Thurnau Professor at the University of Michigan; Provost and Senior VP for Academic Affairs at Stony Brook University\nLarry Bacow (SB 1972) – president of Harvard University, former president of Tufts University, lawyer, economist, author\nMerrill J. Bateman (PhD 1965) – former president of Brigham Young University; Mormon Presiding Bishop\nScott C. Beardsley – dean of the University of Virginia Darden School of Business\nLawrence Berk (SB 1932, Architectural Engineering) – founder and former president of Berklee College of Music (1945–1978)\nWilliam R. Brody (SB 1965, SM 1966) – former president of Johns Hopkins University, current president of Salk Institute\nMarion Hamilton Carter (1893) - educator, journalist, author\nEmily Calandrelli (SM 2013) - aerospace engineer and STEM communicator\nJared Cohon (SM 1972, PhD 1973) – former president of Carnegie Mellon University\nWilliam Cooper (PhD 1976) – president of University of Richmond\nAllan Cullimore – former president of New Jersey Institute of Technology (1920–1947)\nLaura D\'Andrea Tyson (PhD 1974) – chairman of the CEA under Clinton; former dean of the Haas School of Business; former dean of the London Business School\nWoodie Flowers (SM 1968, ME 1971, PhD 1973) – MIT professor, created Introduction to Design (2.70), founder of FIRST Robotics Competition, starting host of Scientific American Frontiers (1990–93)\nPhilip Friedman (PhD 1972) – president of Golden Gate University\nDavid Garrison – founding chair, University of Houston–Clear Lake Physics Department\nThomas P. Gerrity – former dean of Wharton School at the University of Pennsylvania\nHollis Godfrey (1889) – former president of Drexel University\nEric Grimson (BSc 1975) – computer scientist and Chancellor of MIT\nAmos Horev (SB, SM) – former president of Technion\nShirley Jackson (SB 1968, PhD 1973) – president of Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, physicist\nMartin C. Jischke (SM, PhD 1968) – former president of Purdue University\nTheodora J. Kalikow (Sc.M. 1970) – former president of the University of Maine at Farmington and the University of Southern Maine\nSalman Khan – founder and executive director of Khan Academy\nJoseph Klafter – chemical physics professor, the eighth President of Tel Aviv University\nMartin C. Libicki (BS Mathematics) – professor at the Frederick S. Pardee RAND Graduate School in Santa Monica, California\nJohn Maeda (SB, SM 1989) – former president of Rhode Island School of Design (2008–2013), graphic designer, computer scientist, author, venture capitalist\nModesto Maidique (SB 1962, SM 1964, EE 1966, PhD 1970) – former president of Florida International University\nJulianne Malveaux (PhD 1980) – president of Bennett College\nAlan Marcus (PhD 1981) -- economist; professor at the Carroll School of Management, Boston College. The first recipient of the Mario Gabelli Endowed Professorship.\nDavid McClain (PhD 1974) – president of University of Hawaii\nFrederic Mishkin (SB 1973, PhD 1976) – economist; professor at Columbia Business School; Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System (2006–2008); appeared in the documentary Inside Job\nLeo E. Morton (SM 1987) – chancellor of University of Missouri-Kansas City\nGretchen Ritter (Ph.D.) – dean of the Cornell University College of Arts and Sciences.\nRichard Santagati (SM 1979) – former president of Merrimack College\nRahmat Shoureshi – researcher, professor, and provost of New York Institute of Technology (NYIT)\nReed Shuldiner (Ph.D. 1985) – Alvin L. Snowiss Professor of Law at the University of Pennsylvania Law School\nNam-Pyo Suh (SB 1959, SM 1961) – president of KAIST (Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology)\nLawrence H. Summers (SB 1975) – former president of Harvard University, economist, former presidential advisor\nSubra Suresh (ScD 1981) – former president of Carnegie Mellon University, former Director of the National Science Foundation, former Dean of the School of Engineering at MIT\n Ahmed Tewfik (PhD 1987) – IEEE Signal Processing Society President, former chair of the Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Cockrell School of Engineering at the University of Texas at Austin\nLee T. Todd, Jr. (SM 1970, EE 1971, PhD 1974) – president of University of Kentucky\nHal Varian (SB 1969) – chief economist at Google, founding dean of the School of Information at UC Berkeley\nPatrick Henry Winston (SB 1965, SM 1967, PhD 1970) – author of standard textbooks on artificial intelligence and programming languages, MIT professor, co-founded Ascent Technology\nElisabeth Zinser (SM 1982) – president of Southern Oregon University\n\nHumanities, arts, and social sciences\n\nSaleem Ali (PhD 2001) – Blue and Gold Distinguished Professor of Energy and Environment at the University of Delaware, National Geographic Emerging Explorer, World Economic Forum Young Global Leader\nSteve Altes (SB 1984, SM 1986) – humorist, National Medal of Technology recipient, writer of Geeks & Greeks graphic novel about MIT\nStephen R. Barley (PhD 1984) – professor of Management Science and Engineering at Stanford University\nHarry Binswanger – philosopher, associate of Ayn Rand\nMichael Brame (PhD 1970) – professor of linguistics at the University of Washington\nDylan Bruno – actor\nJohn W. Campbell (physics, dropped out) – writer, longtime editor of Astounding Science Fiction\nJames Eckhouse (1976, dropped out) – actor, Beverly Hills, 90210\nAlia Farid – contemporary artist\nNate Greenslit (PhD) – musician, writer and academic\nHerbert Kalmus (1903) – inventor of Technicolor, star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\nDean Karlan (PhD) – development economist and founder of Innovations for Poverty Action\nKealoha, born Steven Wong (1999) – performance poet; Hawaii\'s first Poet Laureate and National Poetry Slam Legend; storyteller; Hawaii\'s SlamMaster\nPaul Krugman (PhD) – New York Times columnist, John Bates Clark Medal and Nobel Prize winner (economics)\nNed Lagin – played keyboards and synthesizer at a number of the Grateful Dead shows between 1970 and 1975 and on a few mid–1970s albums\nHugh Lofting – author of Dr. Dolittle series of books; trained at MIT as civil engineer, 1904–05\nDan Massey – sexual freedom scholar, religious philosopher, human rights activist, chief engineer at BBN Technologies, and senior scientist at Science Applications International Corporation\nRajesh Mehta (SB Humanities and Engineering 1986)– hybrid trumpeter, composer, educational technology consultant\nMarisa Morán Jahn – multimedia artist and founder of Studio REV-\nCharles Murray – researcher, co-author of The Bell Curve\n Alan Rath (BS 1982) – electronic, kinetic, and robotic sculptor\nJohn Shelton Reed (BS 1964) – sociologist, author of The Enduring South, elected to the Fellowship of Southern Writers\nEllen Swallow Richards (BS 1873) – founder of the modern home economics discipline and first woman admitted to MIT\nTom Scott (SB 1966) – winner of Academy Awards for sound mixing for The Right Stuff and Amadeus\nJamshied Sharifi – Tony Award winning composer\nErland Van Lidth De Jeude – Hollywood actor, opera singer\nDavid Walter – British BBC and ITN correspondent and later, political advisor (winner of Kennedy Memorial Scholarship to MIT)\nSamuel Washington Weis – painter\nJames Woods (1969, dropped out) – Hollywood actor, Oscar nominee, Emmy winner\n\nScience and technology\n\nColin Adams – mathematician, knot theory expert, teacher, writer, math humorist\n Rakesh Agrawal – National Medal of Technology and Innovation Laureate and Professor of Chemical Engineering at Purdue University\nBuzz Aldrin – combat pilot, astronaut, second man to walk on the Moon\nPauline Morrow Austin – meteorologist, Director of Weather Radar at MIT, research staff in Radiation Laboratory\nAdrian Bejan – professor of mechanical engineering, namesake of the Bejan number\nGordon Bell – computer engineer and manager, designer of DEC PDP, manager of the VAX project\nStephen Benton – invented rainbow hologram, pioneered digital holography\nKatie Bouman – computer game designer and programmer, developed Zork adventure game\nManuel Blum – computer scientist, received Turing Award (1995) for studies in computational complexity theory\nKatie Bouman – computer scientist and electrical engineer involved in developing the algorithm used in filtering the first images of a black hole taken by the Event Horizon Telescope\nDan Bricklin – co-inventor of Visicalc, the first WYSIWYG PC spreadsheet program\nAlice G. Bryant – otolaryngologist and inventor of surgical tools\nEdward M. Burgess – chemist, inventor of the Burgess reagent\nChristopher Chen - William Fairfield Warren Distinguished Professor of Biomedical Engineering at Boston University.\nDavid D. Clark – led the development of TCP/IP (the protocol that underlies the Internet)\nWesley A. Clark – computing pioneer, creator of the LINC (the first minicomputer)\nFernando Corbató – retired MIT professor, Turing Award (1990), co-founder of the Multics project\nShiladitya DasSarma (PhD 1985) – pioneering microbiologist and professor at University of Maryland School of Medicine who deciphered genetic code for Halobacterium NRC-1\nPeter J. Denning (SM 1965, PhD 1968) – computer scientist, professor, co-founder of the Multics project, pioneered virtual memory\nJack Dennis – retired MIT professor, co-founder of the Multics project\nPeter Diamandis – founder and chairman of the X PRIZE Foundation, co-founder and chairman of Singularity University, and co-author of New York Times bestseller Abundance: The Future Is Better Than You Think\nWhitfield Diffie – pioneer of public-key cryptography and the Diffie-Hellman protocol, Turing Award (2015)\nK. Eric Drexler – pioneer nanotechnologist, author, co-founded Foresight Institute\nHarold Eugene "Doc" Edgerton (SM 1927, ScD 1931) – former MIT Institute professor; co-founder, and the "E", of EG&G; stroboscope photography pioneer; Oscar winner 1940\nTheodore Miller Edison (1898–1992) – only child of Thomas Alva Edison who graduated from college; inventor with over 80 patents\nFarouk El-Baz – Supervisor of Lunar Science Planning, Apollo Program, NASA\nKelly Falkner (PhD 1989) – oceanographer, Antarctic researcher\nBran Ferren (Class of 1974) – Designer, Technologist, Engineer, entertainment technology expert, prolific inventor, Academy Award nominee\nCarl Feynman – computer scientist; son of the physicist Richard Feynman\nMike Fincke (SB Aero/Astro 1989, SB EAPS 1989) – NASA astronaut. \nMarron William Fort (SB 1926, SM 1927, PhD 1933) – first African-American to earn a PhD in engineering\nBob Frankston (SB 1970, SM EE 1974) – co-inventor of Visicalc (first WYSIWYG PC spreadsheet program); critic of telecommunications public policy\nLimor Fried – open-source hardware pioneer, founder of Adafruit Industries\nSimson Garfinkel – journalist, author, computer security researcher, entrepreneur, computer science professor\nIvan Getting – co-inventor of the Global Positioning System (GPS), Draper Prize (2003)\nJim Gettys – an original developer of X Window, former director of GNOME\nMartha Goodway – archaeometallurgist at the Smithsonian Institution\nBill Gosper (SB 1965) – mathematician, a founder of the original hacker community, pioneer of symbolic computing, originator of hashlife\nJulia R. Greer (SB 1997) – materials science professor at Caltech, pioneer in the fields of nanomechanics and architected materials, CNN 2020 Visionary\nGerald Guralnik (SB 1958) – Professor of Physics, Brown University; co-discoverer of Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson in 1964 with C.R. Hagen; awarded J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics in 2010\nC. R. Hagen (SB, SM 1958, PhD. 1963) – Professor of Physics, University of Rochester; co-discoverer of Higgs mechanism and Higgs boson in 1964 with Gerald Guralnik; awarded J. J. Sakurai Prize for Theoretical Particle Physics in (2010) \nGeorge Ellery Hale – astronomer, founded several astronomical observatories, developed Throop College of Technology into Caltech\nKaren Hao (SB 2015), award-winning AI journalist\n William W. Happ - (MS) - Silicon transistor pioneer at Shockley Semiconductor Laboratory, and Professor at Arizona State University.\n Guadalupe Hayes-Mota - (SB 2008, SM 2016, MBA 2016) - biotechnologist and business director.\nAsegun Henry (SM, PhD 2009) – mechanical engineer\n Caroline Herzenberg (SB 1953) – physicist\nJulian W. Hill (PhD 1928) – inventor of nylon\nC.-T. James Huang (PhD 1982) – generative linguist, Professor and Director of Graduate Studies at Harvard, Fellow of the Linguistic Society of America (2015), recipient of the Linguistic Society of Taiwan\'s Lifetime Achievement Award (2014)\nDavid A. Huffman – computer scientist known for Huffman coding used in lossless data compression\nJerome C. Hunsaker (SM 1912, ScD 1923) – pioneering aeronautical engineer, airship designer, former head of MIT Mechanical Engineering Department\nAnya Hurlbert (PhD, 1989) - visual neuroscientist\nWilliam Jeffrey – defense technology expert, former director of National Institute of Standards and Technology\nThomas Kailath – entrepreneur, retired Stanford professor, IEEE Medal of Honor (2007)\nRudolf E. Kálmán – electrical engineer, theoretical mathematician, co-inventor of Kalman Filter algorithm, Draper Prize (2008)\nJordin Kare – high energy laser physicist, developer of "mosquito laser zapper"\nGregor Kiczales — computer scientist, professor at the University of British Columbia, Fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery\nLeonard Kleinrock – computing and Internet pioneer, one of the key group of designers of the original ARPANET\nHenry Kloss (1953, dropped out) – audio engineer; entrepreneur; founder of Acoustic Research, KLH, Advent, Kloss Video, Cambridge SoundWorks, Tivoli Audio\nLoren Kohnfelder – introduced the term "public key certificate" for public key cryptography in secure network communication\nRaymond Kurzweil (SB 1970) – inventor, entrepreneur in music synthesizers, OCR and speech-to-text processing\nLeslie Lamport – computing pioneer in temporal logic, developer of LaTeX, Turing Award (2013)\nRobert S. Langer – biochemical engineer, biomedical researcher, MIT professor, inventor, entrepreneur, Draper Prize (2002)\nNorman Levinson (SB SM 1934, ScD 1935) – theoretical mathematician, former Institute Professor at MIT, developed Levinson recursion\nDaniel Levitin – neuroscientist, music producer, author of This Is Your Brain on Music\nSoung Chang Liew (SB 1984, SM 1986, PhD 1988) – information engineering professor\nSteven R. Little (PhD 2005) - chemical engineer, pharmaceutical scientist, and department chair of Chemical Engineering at the University of Pittsburgh Swanson School of Engineering\nMaureen D. Long (PhD 2006) - observational seismologist \nEdward Norton Lorenz – mathematician, meteorologist, MIT professor emeritus, invented chaos theory, discovered Lorenz attractor\nJoseph Lykken (PhD 1982) – theoretical physicist, proposed "weak scale superstring" theory\nDanilo M Maceda Jr Founder Anonymous Philippines   – technology policy expert, software entrepreneur, film writer, software engineer, computer programmer (dropout for hacking CIA server)\nHiram Percy Maxim – inventor of the "Maxim Silencer" and founder of the American Radio Relay League\nJohn F. McCarthy Jr. (BS 1950, MS 1951) – director of MIT Center for Space Research and director of Lewis Research Center, NASA\nDouglas McIlroy (PhD 1959) – mathematician, software engineer, professor, developed component-based software engineering, an original developer of Unix, member of National Academy of Engineering\nDiane McKnight (BS 1975, MS 1978, PhD 1979) – engineering professor, limnologist, biogeochemist, Antarctic researcher\nFaye McNeill (PhD 2005) – American atmospheric chemist and Professor of Chemical Engineering at Columbia University\nParisa Mehrkhodavandi (PhD 2002) – chemist\nFulvio Melia (PhD 1985) – theoretical astrophysicist, professor, author, editor, general educator\nHolly Michael, (PhD 2005) – hydrogeologist and professor\nArnold Mindell (MSc 1961) – physicist, author, psychologist – developer of Process Oriented Psychology\nDouglas J. Mink (SB 1973, SM 1974) – astronomer, software developer, co-discovered rings around Uranus, bicycling activist\nBill Parker – artist, engineer, inventor of the modern plasma lamp\nBradford Parkinson – co-inventor of the Global Positioning System (GPS), Draper Prize (2003)\nRobert A. "Bob" Pease (SB 1961) – analog integrated circuit design expert, technical author\nIrene Pepperberg (SB 1969) – Brandeis University professor, researcher in animal cognition, trained Alex (parrot)\nAlan Perlis (SM 1949, PhD 1950) – computer scientist, professor, pioneer of programming languages, winner of the first Turing Award (1966)\nRadia Perlman (SB 1973, SM 1976, PhD 1988) – computer scientist, network engineer, invented numerous data network technologies, "mother of the Internet"\nDavid Pesetsky (PhD 1982) – generative linguist, Ferrari P. Ward Professor of Modern Languages and Linguistics and Head of the Department of Linguistics and Philosophy at the MIT\nEdward Rebar (PhD 1997) – biologist, senior vice president, and chief technology officer at Sangamo Therapeutics\nChoKyun Rha (SB ’62, SM ’64, SM ’66, SCD ’67) – food technologist, professor at MIT\nAdam Riess (SB 1992) – physicist, Nobel Prize winner in Physics awarded in 2011 for demonstrating the acceleration of the universe\'s rate of expansion\nLouis W. Roberts (PhD 1946) – microwave physicist, chief of the Microwave Laboratory at NASA\'s Electronics Research Center, director of the John A. Volpe National Transportation Systems Center\nJerome Saltzer – retired MIT professor, timesharing computing pioneer, co-founder of the Multics project, Director of Project Athena\nFrederick P. Salvucci (SB 1961, SM 1962) – civil engineer, transportation planner, MIT professor, former Massachusetts Secretary of Transportation, public transit advocate, Big Dig advocate\nGeorge W. Santos – pioneer in bone marrow transplantation\nBob Scheifler – computer scientist, leader of the X Window System project, architect of Jini\nJulie Segre – epithelial biologist, Chief of the Human Genome Research Institute\nOliver Selfridge – computer scientist, father of machine perception\nClaude Shannon – mathematician, electrical engineer, and cryptographer known as "the father of information theory"\nAmy B. Smith (SB 1984, SM 1995) – mechanical engineer, inventor, former Peace Corps volunteer, MIT senior lecturer and researcher in appropriate technology, MacArthur Fellow (2004)\nOliver R. Smoot – namesake of the smoot unit of measurement, former chair of ANSI; former president of ISO\nRichard M. Stallman (grad student, dropped out) – computer programmer; Free Software activist; creator of EMACS editor, GNU; MacArthur Fellow (1990)\nGuy L. Steele, Jr. (SM 1977, PhD 1980) – computer scientist, programming language expert, an original editor of the Jargon File (Hacker\'s Dictionary)\nBert Sutherland (SM, PhD) – managed research laboratories, including Sun Microsystems Laboratories (1992–1998), the Systems Science Laboratory at Xerox PARC (1975–1981), and the Computer Science Division of Bolt, Beranek and Newman\nIvan Sutherland (PhD 1963) – computer graphics pioneer, former professor, ARPAnet and Internet pioneer, co-founded Evans & Sutherland, Turing Award (1988)\nLynne Talley (PhD 1982) – physical oceanographer, professor\nBadri Nath Tandon (1961) – gastroenterologist, textbook author, Sasakawa WHO Health Prize and Padma Bhushan winner\nAndrew S. Tanenbaum (SB 1965) – computer scientist, professor, textbook author (operating systems), creator of Minix (the precursor to Linux)\nFrederick Terman – electrical engineer; former provost of Stanford University; "father of Silicon Valley"\nRay Tomlinson – innovator of email systems, pioneered the use of the "@" symbol for email\nLeonard H. Tower Jr. – early Free Software activist, software hacker\nJohn G. Trump – electrical engineer, inventor, and physicist\nKay Tye – neuroscientist, MIT assistant professor\nAnn M. Valentine – chemist, professor at Yale and Temple University\nManuel Sandoval Vallarta – MIT professor, founder of the Physics Institute at UNAM; mentor of Nobel laureate Richard Feynman\nSusie Wee – Women in Technology International laureate; CTEO of Collaboration at Cisco\nRobert Williams Wood – optical physicist, developed "black light", ultraviolet and infrared photography\nJoshua Wurman – meteorologist, inventor, developed the Doppler On Wheels, Bistatic Weather Radar Networks, founder and president of Center for Severe Weather Research (CSWR)\nJenny Y Yang (PhD 2007) – chemist\nEdward Yourdon – computer pioneer, author, lecturer, popularized the term "Y2K Bug"\nGregorio Y. Zara – inventor of the first two-way videophone; National Scientist of the Philippines\nGünter M. Ziegler – mathematician, Free University of Berlin professor, ex-president of the German Mathematical Society, recipient of the Chauvenet and Leroy P. Steele prizes\n\nSports\n\nJimmy Bartolotta (2009) – professional basketball player\nCharles Butt, Jr. (1941) – rowing coach \nSkip Dise (2003) – member of 2010 US National Rowing Team\nAdam Edelman (2014) – American-born Israeli Olympic skeleton athlete\nJohan Harmenberg – épée fencer, gold medal winner in the 1980 Olympics, world champion\nLarry Kahn – tiddlywinks champion\nDave Lockwood – tiddlywinks champion\nJeff Sagarin (1970) – sports statistician\nZeke Sanborn – Olympic gold medalist\nJason Szuminski (2000) – major league pitcher\nSteve Tucker (1991) – two-time member of the US Olympic rowing team\n\nMiscellaneous\n\nKaty Croff Bell – National Geographic explorer\nSylvester Q. Cannon (SB Mining Engineering) – Apostle of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints\nCsaba Csere (1978 SB, 2 Mechanical Engineering) – automotive journalist, editor of Car and Driver\nJanet Hsieh (2001) – Taiwanese-American television personality, violinist, author, and model; host of Fun Taiwan\nJeff Hwang – US Air Force fighter pilot, 1999 winner of Mackay Trophy\nJ. Kenji López-Alt (2002 SB, 4, Architecture) – celebrity chef, author of The Food Lab: Better Home Cooking Through Science\nRay Magliozzi (1972 SB, 21B, Humanities and Science) – radio personality, Car Talk\nTom Magliozzi (1958 SB, 14A, Economic Policy and Engineering) – radio personality, Car Talk\nLalit Pande (1972 SM, 2 Mechanical Engineering) – environmentalist and Padma Shri awardee\nRandal Pinkett – chairman and CEO of BCT Partners; winner of television show The Apprentice\nPrincess Ubol Ratana of Thailand (1973 SB, 18 Mathematics) – \nAafia Siddiqui (1995 SB, 7 Biology / Life Science) – neuroscientist; alleged Al-Qaeda operative; convicted of assaulting with a deadly weapon and attempting to kill US soldiers and FBI agents\nEllen Spertus (1990 SB, 1992 SM, 1998 PhD, Computer Science) – professor, computer scientist, 2001\'s "Sexiest Geek Alive"\nKelvin Teo (SM 2006) – young entrepreneur and season 1 winner of Malaysian reality show Love Me Do\nRobert Varkonyi (1983 SB, 15 Management, 1983 SB, 6 Computer Science and Engineering) – winner of the 2002 World Series of Poker Main Event\n\nNobel laureate alumni\n, the MIT Office of the Provost says that 76 Nobel awardees had or currently have a formal connection to MIT. Of this group, 29 have earned MIT degrees (MIT has never awarded honorary degrees in any form).\n\nAstronaut alumni\n\nSee also \n List of companies founded by MIT alumni\n\nReferences\n\nLists of people by university or college in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '27792666',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoury%20College%20of%20Computer%20Sciences',
  'title': 'Khoury College of Computer Sciences',
  'text': 'The Khoury College of Computer Sciences is the computer science school of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science when it was founded in 1982.  It addition to computer science, it specializes in data science and cybersecurity. The college was also among the first to offer an information assurance degree program. \n\nKhoury College offers Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Master of Science (M.S.) and doctoral degrees in computer science, as well as undergraduate and graduate degrees in interdisciplinary, computer-related fields. Some 1,000 master\'s and 133 doctoral candidates are enrolled in the college.\n\nHistory\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Northeastern University made about 38 program and curriculum changes to improve the university. Between 1979 and 1981, Northeastern organized a blue-ribbon panel of educators and experts, including industry leaders from Bell Labs, University of California, Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Digital Equipment Corporation, to develop a plan to advance education and research in the emerging field of computer science. In 1982, Northeastern formally established the College of Computer Science (CCS), the first U.S. college devoted to computer science and the first new college at Northeastern in 17 years. Paul Kalaghan, director of Academic Computer Services, was named its first dean. The college was initially housed in Knowles-Volpe Hall, now known as the Asa S. Knowles Center, with 11 faculty members and 239 first-year students. Graduate degree programs were added in 1984. A year later, the college moved into the former Botolph Building, one of the oldest structures on campus, which reopened as the David and Margaret Fitzgerald Cullinane Hall. At the end of 1987, the CCS proposed the Law of Demeter, which was widely used in software development area. In 2004, the college moved into the newly constructed West Village H building, which consists of a six-story building and a 16-story tower containing the Khoury College of Computer Science and on-campus housing for 485 students.\n\nNaming donation\n\nOn December 16, 2018, Northeastern University announced a $50 million gift from alumnus and board trustee, Amin Khoury, in order to "support all aspects of the college\'s future focus." In return, the College of Computer and Information Science was renamed the Khoury College of Computer Sciences.\n\nNortheastern Deans of Computer Science\n\n Paul Kalaghan, 1982-1988\n Alan Selman (acting), 1988-1990\n Cynthia Brown, 1990-1994\n Larry Finkelstein, 1994-2014\n Carla Brodley, 2014-2021\n Alan Mislove (interim), 2021-2022\n Elizabeth Mynatt, 2022 - present\n\nAcademic programs\nIn addition to a traditional computer science curriculum, Khoury College offers numerous other information science programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.\n\nComputer science\n\nThe computer science program at Khoury College focuses on the fundamentals of computer program design, software design, computer networking, computation theory, and other technical computer-related subjects.\n\nUndergraduate degrees\n\nThe CS program offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees. While both require a core curriculum of computer science, mathematics, science, and humanities coursework, the B.A. candidates are required to take more humanities coursework than B.S. candidates. The B.S. is thus the more technical of the two degrees, with the B.A. aimed at giving students a social science context with which to frame their understanding of computer science. Khoury College offers the following degrees:\n\nB.S. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Cybersecurity\nB.A. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Information Science\nB.S. in Data Science\n\nCombined majors\n\nKhoury College offers multiple combined major degree options within its own programs:\n\n B.S. in Computer Science and Information Science\n B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science\n\nThe combined B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science substitutes four master-level courses for their undergraduate equivalents. Students then have only to take four master-level electives to complete the program. This allows a student to graduate with both degrees on either a five-year track, or a six-year track with an additional co-op experience.\n\nIn addition, the College partners with other colleges at Northeastern to offer several joint degrees, such as combining Computer Science with Journalism, Game Design or Interactive Media.\n\nInformation science\n\nInformation science—the interdisciplinary study of how humans use information technology—combines a technical understanding of computer science and system design with the behavior context of the social sciences. Coursework covers the fields of information architecture, information system design and development, programming design, database design, and social informatics, among others. A two-semester senior capstone project, designed to integrate the many skill sets developed in the program, is required. Currently, only the B.S. of Information Science is offered, though it may be offered in conjunction with another degree.\n\nGraduate degrees\n\nKhoury College offers both Master of Science and doctoral degrees. In 2018, Khoury College\'s graduate program in computer science was ranked 49th in the list of the "Best Computer Science Graduate Schools." The publication also ranked the graduate program 12th on its list of "Best Programming Language Programs."\n\nMaster\'s degrees\n\nKhoury College offers the following master\'s degrees:\n\n MS in Computer Science \n Align MS in Computer Science (for people who did not study computer science as undergrads)\n MS in Cybersecurity\n MS in Data Science\n MS in Artificial Intelligence\n MS in Robotics\n MS in Health Informatics\n MS in Health Data Analytics\n MS in Game Science and Design\n\nCandidates for the MS in Computer Science can choose from the following concentrations:\n\nArtificial intelligence\nHuman–computer interaction\nDatabase management\nGraphics\nInformation security\nNetworks\nProgramming languages\nSoftware engineering\nSystems\nTheory\n\nKhoury College began offering the M.S. in Information Assurance (now the MS in Cybersecurity) in 2006, for which it has gained recognition by the National Security Agency as both a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education and Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Research. Masters candidates take coursework addressing the various technical, policy, and criminal justice-related issues involved in information assurance, preparing them for careers as corporate and government information executives. Full-time candidates for the M.S. in Cybersecurity typically finish the program in two years, with 32 semester hours required to earn the degree.\n\nPhD program\n\nThe PhD program prepares students for research careers in government, industry, or academia. Candidates are required to take coursework in computer systems, principles of programming languages, advanced algorithms, and computation theory. Electives in these and other subjects are also available. Candidates are given a maximum of five years to complete this coursework and their doctoral thesis. Khoury College offers four PhD programs:\n\n PhD in Computer Science\n PhD in Network Science\n PhD in Information Assurance\n PhD in Personal Health Informatics\n\nIn the 2011–2012 school year, the information assurance program began offering the Ph.D in Information Assurance, designed to be an interdisciplinary program with a focus on information assurance policy and research. Candidates for this doctoral degree take a core curriculum of computer networking, network security, hardware and software security, information security risk management, and information assurance policy. Elective coursework is then taken in one of three areas of concentration (or "tracks"), namely:\n\n Network/Communication Security\n System Security\n Policy/Society\n\nCandidates for the PhD in Information Assurance have a maximum of five years to complete their required coursework and doctoral thesis.\n\nThe PhD in Personal Health Informatics is an interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in Personal Health Informatics prepares researchers to design and evaluate technologies that improve health and wellness with the potential to transform healthcare. The joint degree program combines a strong curriculum in human-computer interface technology and experimental design in health sciences.\n\nStudent groups\nThe following student groups and organizations are part of the Khoury College community:\n\nAssociation for Computing Machinery (ACM)\nComputer Science Mentoring Organization (CoSMO)\nUndergraduate Experimental Systems Group (Crew), a volunteer student group supporting the Khoury IT systems staff\nUpsilon Pi Epsilon Honor Society (UPE)\nNortheastern University Women in Technology (NUWiT)\nNortheastern Game Development Club \nInformation Systems Security Association\nOut in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (oSTEM)\nNortheastern University DATA Club\n\nStudents of the college also participate in a variety of information security competitions, most notably the National Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition. The College\'s team won its regional qualifier, the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition ("NECCDC"), in 2009, and took first place at the national competition in 2010. Khoury College was host to the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition in 2011.\n\nCooperative education within Khoury College\nStudents at Khoury College have the option of participating in Northeastern\'s Cooperative Education Program ("co-op program"). The co-op program allows students to take semester-long internships with public and private-sector organizations, exposing them to the real world application of the skills and knowledge taught in their academic major. Nearly two-thirds of Khoury College\'s graduating students are offered full-time positions by the companies for at which they worked a co-op.\n\nCompanies that participate in this program range from small startups to large enterprises including Google, Microsoft, John Hancock, and Amazon.com. The college has been able to achieve 100% placement in the past 7 years for all students who choose to go on 5-year co-op program.\n\nKey people\n Carla Brodley, Professor, Dean of Inclusive Computing, Northeastern University \nMatthias Felleisen, Trustee Professor \nWilliam Clinger , Associate Professor Emeritus \n David Lazer, Distinguished Professor \n Albert-László Barabási, Distinguished Professor \n Alessandro Vespignani, Distinguished Professor \n Renée Miller, Distinguished Professor \n Gene Cooperman, Professor, parallel computing and combination puzzle analysis\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences website\n Northeastern University website\n\nNortheastern University\nEducational institutions established in 1982\nUniversity subdivisions in Massachusetts\n1982 establishments in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '459382',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20Americans',
  'title': 'List of Indian Americans',
  'text': 'Indian Americans are citizens or residents of the United States of America who trace their family descent to India. This article is a list of notable Indian Americans.\n\nAcademics\n\nNobel Prize recipients\n \n Har Gobind Khorana (1922-2011), Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1968\n Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995), Nobel Prize for Physics, 1983\n Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998; Thomas W. Lamont University Professor and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University\n Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (b. 1952), Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2009; Former President of the Royal Society, (2015-2020)\n Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2019; Ford Foundation International Professor of Economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n\nDeans and presidents\n\n Rakesh Khurana (born 1967), dean of Harvard College \n Neeli Bendapudi (born 1962), president of University of Louisville \n Jamshed Bharucha (born 1956), former president of Cooper Union, (2011-2015); former dean of arts & sciences at Dartmouth College and former provost at Tufts University\n Vijay K. Dhir (born 1943), former dean of the UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science, (2003-2016)\n Ravi V. Bellamkonda (born 1968), Vinik Dean of Engineering at Duke University Edmund T. Pratt Jr. School of Engineering \n Dinesh D\'Souza (born 1961), former president of The King\'s College, New York, (2010-2012)\n Anjli Jain (born 1981), executive director of Campus Consortium\n Dipak C. Jain (born 1957), former dean of INSEAD, (2011-2013); former dean of the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, (2001-2009)\n Vistasp Karbhari, former president of the University of Texas at Arlington, (2013-2020)\n Pramod Khargonekar (born 1956), control theorist; vice chancellor of research at University of California, Irvine; former dean, College of Engineering at University of Florida, Gainesville, (2001-2009)\n Renu Khator (born 1958), chancellor of the University of Houston System and president of the University of Houston; former provost and senior vice president, University of South Florida\n Pradeep Khosla (born 1957), chancellor of the University of California, San Diego\n Vijay Kumar (born 1962), dean of School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania\n Geeta Menon,  dean emeritus of the undergraduate college at New York University Stern School of Business\n Nitin Nohria (born 1962), former dean of Harvard Business School, (2010-2020)\n Sethuraman Panchanathan, director of National Science Foundation and former executive vice president and chief research and innovation officer at Arizona State University\n Michael Rao, president of Virginia Commonwealth University\n S. Narasinga Rao, former dean of Jackson College of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Central Oklahoma\n Beheruz Sethna, president of the University of West Georgia\n Paul Shrivastava, chief sustainability officer, and director, Sustainability Institute, Pennsylvania State University\n Molly Easo Smith, president of Manhattanville College\n Kumble R. Subbaswamy, chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst\n Subra Suresh, president of Carnegie Mellon University\n Satish K. Tripathi, president of University at Buffalo\n Sundaraja Sitharama Iyengar, Ryder Professor of Computer Science and director of the School of Computing and Information Sciences at Florida International University, Miami\n S. Shankar Sastry, former dean of the UC Berkeley College of Engineering\n Bala V. Balachandran (born 1937), professor emeritus at Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University; founder, dean and chairman of Great Lakes Institute of Management and executive professor & strategy adviser to the dean of the Bauer College of Business at University of Houston\nNagi Naganathan, president of Oregon Institute of Technology and former president and dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Toledo, (2001-2016)\nSri Zaheer, dean of Carlson School of Management at the University of Minnesota\n\nMathematicians\n Raj Chandra Bose (1901-1987), mathematician\n Shamit Kachru (b. 1970), Mathematical Physicist, professor at Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics \n Akshay Venkatesh (b. 1981), Fields Medal laureate, mathematician\n Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar (1930-2012), mathematician, singularity theory and Abhyankar\'s conjecture of finite group theory\n Raghu Raj Bahadur (1924-1997), statistician\n Manjul Bhargava (b. 1974),  professor of mathematics at Princeton University and winner of Fields Medal, 2014\n Rahul Pandharipande (b. 1969), joined as Professor of Mathematics at Princeton University in 2002, he accepted a Professorship at ETH Zürich\n Sarvadaman Chowla (1907-1995), mathematician specializing in number theory\n Harish-Chandra (1923-1983), mathematician, IBM Von Neumann Professor at Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton\n Narendra Karmarkar (b. 1955), mathematician, inventor of Karmarkar algorithm\n Chandrashekhar Khare (b. 1968), professor of mathematics at the University of California Los Angeles\n G. S. Maddala (1933-1999), mathematician and economist best known for work in the field of econometrics\n Anil Nerode (b. 1932), mathematician, proved the Myhill-Nerode Theorem\n Ria Persad (b. 1974), mathematician, classical musician, and model\n K. C. Sreedharan Pillai (1920-1985), mathematician\n Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao (b. 1920), professor at Penn State University and research professor at the University of Buffalo\n S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan (b. 1940), NYU mathematician who specialised in probability; winner of the Abel Prize and Steele Prize\n DJ Patil (b. 1974), mathematician & Data scientist\n Sucharit Sarkar (b. 1983), mathematician and topologist\n Sourav Chatterjee (b. 1979), statistician, mathematician and professor at Stanford\n Kannan Soundararajan (b. 1973), mathematician, professor at Stanford and IMO medalist.\n Subhash Khot (b. 1978), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist famous for Unique games conjecture.\n Sanjeev Arora (b. 1968), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist and Gödel Prize winner.\n\nEconomists\n  \n\n Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Ford Foundation international professor of economics at MIT\n Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Thomas W. Lamont University Professor, and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University.\n Pranab Bardhan (b. 1939), Professor Emeritus of Economics University of California, Berkeley\n Kaushik Basu (b. 1952), C. Marks Professor of International Studies and Professor of Economics Cornell University\n Jagdish Natwarlal Bhagwati (b. 1934), professor of economics at Columbia University\n Alok Bhargava (b. 1954), professor of economics at the University of Maryland School of Public Policy\n V. V. Chari (b. 1952), professor of economics at the University of Minnesota\n Raj Chetty (b. 1979), professor of economics at Harvard University\n Srikant Datar, The 11th Dean of Harvard Business School, took charge from January 1, 2021\n Avinash Kamalakar Dixit (b. 1944), professor of economics at Princeton University\n Gita Gopinath (b. 1971),  chief economist at the International Monetary Fund and Economic Adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala\n Reema Harrysingh-Carmona (b. 1970), economist and the 5th First Lady of Trinidad and Tobago\n Sendhil Mullainathan (b. 1973), professor of economics, Harvard University\n Arvind Panagariya (b. 1952), professor of economics at Columbia University\n Debraj Ray (b. 1957), Silver Professor of Economics, New York University\n Ruchir Sharma, chief global strategist of asset management and emerging markets equity, Morgan Stanley Investment Management\n Arvind Subramanian (b. 1959), Chief Economic Advisor Government of India and formerly an economist at the International Monetary Fund\n\nProfessors and scholars in computer science or engineering and electrical engineering \n\n Amit Sheth, computer scientist at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio\n Anant Agarwal, professor of electrical engineering and director of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT\n Aravind Joshi (1929-2017), professor of computer and cognitive science at the University of Pennsylvania\n Arvind, Johnson Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n Arogyaswami Paulraj (b. 1944), professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University\n Ashwin Ram (b. 1960), head of artificial intelligence Amazon Alexa\n Avinash Kak (b. 1944), professor of electrical and computer engineering at Purdue University\n B. Jayant Baliga (b. 1948), inventor of the Insulated-gate bipolar transistor\n Bhubaneswar Mishra (b. 1961), professor of computer science, engineering & mathematics at Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University and visiting scholar at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.\n Chandra Kintala (1948-2009), former Vice President Bell Labs\n Gopal H. Gaonkar (b. 1936), a professor of engineering at Florida Atlantic University\n Hari Balakrishnan, Fujitsu Chair Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nHardik Gohel, a faculty of computer science at University of Houston-Victoria\n K. Mani Chandy, professor of computer science at the California Institute of Technology\n Krishna Saraswat, professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University\n Madhu Sudan, professor of computer science at Harvard University\nPrabhat Mishra, professor of computer science and engineering at University of Florida\n Raj Jain, professor of computer science and engineering at Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science\n Rangasami L. Kashyap (b. 1938), professor of electrical engineering at Purdue University\n Ricky J. Sethi, professor of computer science at Fitchburg State University; director of Research at The Madsci Network\n Saraju Mohanty, professor of computer science and engineering at the University of North Texas\nShree K. Nayar, professor of computer science at Columbia University\n Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California\n Shwetak Patel, professor of computer science and electrical engineering at the University of Washington\n Supriyo Datta, Thomas Duncan Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Purdue University\n Thomas Kailath, professor of engineering at Stanford University\n Vijay Vazirani (b. 1957), professor of computer science at University of California, Irvine\nSuman Datta (b. 1973), professor of electrical engineering at Notre Dame University, regarded as one of the greatest pioneers in semiconductor research in USA.\n\nProfessors and scholars in other disciplines \n Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, professor at Northeastern University, electrochemistry; materials science;  lithium,  lithium ion, and lithium air batteries\n Nita Ahuja, Chief of Surgical Oncology at Johns Hopkins Hospital, surgeon-scientist, first women ever to lead this department at Johns Hopkins Hospital.\n Pulickel M. Ajayan, professor of material science at Rice University \n Salman Akhtar, professor at the Jefferson Medical College\n Muzaffar Alam, professor in South Asian Languages & Civilizations at the University of Chicago\n Akhil Amar, professor of law at Yale Law School\n Vikram Amar, professor of law at the University of California, Davis School of Law\n Abhay Ashtekar, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University\n Satya N. Atluri, Presidential Chair and University Distinguished Professor Texas Tech University, Recipient, Padma Bhushan in Science and Engineering in 2013 from the President of India\n P.S. Ayyaswamy, professor of dynamical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania\n Homi K. Bhabha, Anne F. Rothenberg Professor of English and American Literature and Language, and the Director of the Mahindra Humanities Center at Harvard University\n Mahzarin Banaji, professor at Harvard University, best known for exploring implicit racial and gender biases\n Sugata Bose, professor of history at Harvard University\n Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty, professor of microbiology at University of Illinois at Chicago\n Arup Chakraborty, Robert T. Haslam Professor focusing in biophysics, computational modeling and infectious disease at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n Naresh Dalal, Dirac Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Florida State University\n Aswath Damodaran, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University\n Ashok Das, professor of physics at the University of Rochester\n Ashok Gadgil, professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Berkeley\n Rajit Gadh, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at University of California, Los Angeles\n Atul Gawande, professor in the Department of Health Policy & Management at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health\n Swapan K. Gayen, professor of physics at the City University of New York\n Anirvan Ghosh, professor at the University of California, San Diego\n Radhika Govindrajan, associate professor of anthropology at University of Washington\n Vijay Govindarajan, Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College\'s Tuck School of Business and the Marvin Bower Fellow at Harvard Business School \n Kausalya Hart, scholar of Tamil language at UC Berkeley\n Narayan Hosmane, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at Northern Illinois University\n Ravi Jagannathan, professor at the Kellogg School of Management\n Jainendra K. Jain, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University\n Piyare Jain, professor emeritus at University at Buffalo\n Rakesh Jain, professor of tumor biology at Massachusetts General Hospital in the Harvard Medical School\n S. Lochlann Jain, associate professor in the Anthropology Department at Stanford University\n Sachin H. Jain, physician and health policy analyst at Harvard Medical School\n Nazir Jairazbhoy, professor of folk and classical music of South Asia at University of California at Los Angeles\n Yogesh Jaluria, Board of Governors Professor and Distinguished Professor at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.\n M. A. Muqtedar Khan, Professor in the Department of Political Science and International Relations at the University of Delaware\n Ravindra Khattree, professor of statistics at Oakland University\n Satish Nagarajaiah, professor of civil engineering and of mechanical engineering at Rice University.\n S. P. Kothari, Gordon Y Billard Professor of Management at MIT Sloan School of Management\n Shrinivas Kulkarni, professor of astrophysics and planetary science at Caltech\n Vijay Mahajan (academic), John P. Harbin Centennial Chair in Business and Professor of Marketing at University of Texas at Austin\n Raj Mittra, electrical engineering professor at Pennsylvania State University\n Jagadeesh Moodera, American physicist of Indian origin; senior research scientist at MIT\'s Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory\n Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor in the department of English at the University of California, Berkeley\n C. M. Naim, scholar of Urdu language and literature at the University of Chicago\n V. Parmeswaran Nair, Physicist, currently a Distinguished Professor at City University of New York.\n Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California\n Jaishree Odin, professor, postmodern literary theorist at the University of Hawaii\n C.K. Prahalad, professor of corporate strategy at the Stephen M. Ross School of Business in the University of Michigan\n Vijay Prashad, professor of international studies at Trinity College\n Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, behavioral neurologist and psychophysicist; Professor with the Psychology and Neurosciences University of California, San Diego\n J. N. Reddy, professor and holder of the Oscar S. Wyatt Endowed Chair in Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University\n Anantanand Rambachan, professor of religion at St. Olaf College, Minnesota, United States\n K. R. Rao, professor at University of Texas at Arlington\n Subrata Roy, professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Florida\n Subir Sachdev, Herchel Smith Professor of Physics at Harvard University; Dirac Medal and National Academy of Sciences\n Nitin Samarth, Head and Professor of Physics, Pennsylvania State University\n Deepak Sarma, professor of religious studies at Case Western Reserve University\n Jagdish Sheth, professor of marketing at Goizueta Business School of Emory University\n Jagdish Shukla, professor at George Mason University\n Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, professor at Columbia University\n Marti G. Subrahmanyam, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University\n Sanjay Subrahmanyam, holder of Navin and Pratima Doshi Chair of Indian History and scholar at UCLA\n Mriganka Sur, professor of neuroscience at the MIT\n Medha Yodh, scholar of classical Indian dance at UCLA\n\nActivism\n\n Maya Ajmera, founder of The Global Fund for Children and author of more than 20 books for children\nKala Bagai, immigrant advocate and one of the first South Asian women in the United States\n Bhairavi Desai, founding member of the Taxi Workers Alliance in New York\n Kartar Dhillon, Ghadar Party, labor, and civil rights activist\n Mallika Dutt,  executive director of Breakthrough human rights organization\n Vijaya Lakshmi Emani (1958-2009), social activist\n Arun Manilal Gandhi, fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi\n Abraham George, philanthropist humanitarian, founder of The George Foundation (TGF)\n Gitanjali S. Gutierrez, lawyer who is defending Guantanamo prisoners\n Maya Harris, executive director of the ACLU of Northern California and sister of Kamala Harris\nSudhanshu Kaushik, founder of the North American Association of Indian Students and Young India Foundation\n Prerna Lal, immigrant rights advocate and attorney\n Girindra Mukerji, leader of one of the first Indian-American student protests against colonialism in 1908\n Kavita Ramdas, president and CEO of Global Fund for Women\n Dinesh Sharma (academic), leader, CRO and Director at Steam Works Studio and author in human development, human rights and global education, and professor at Walden University \n Inder Singh, chairman of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO)\n Bhagat Singh Thind, civil rights activist who defended the right of Indian immigrants to gain United States citizenship in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\n Urvashi Vaid, gay rights activist\n Thomas Abraham (b. 1948), founder president of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) as well as the National Federation of Indian American Associations (NFIA)\n Sakharam Ganesh Pandit (1875-1959), lawyer who argued against government efforts to revoke American citizenship for Indian emigrants \nJohn Prabhudoss (b.1964), current Chairman of the Federation of Indian American Christian Organizations (FIACONA)\nThenmozhi Soundararajan, American based Dalit rights activist\n\nArts and entertainment\n\n \n Ashok Amritraj, Hollywood film producer\n Salma Arastu, artist\n San Banarje, independent filmmaker\n Rina Banerjee, artist\n Prashant Bhargava, director\n Niala Boodhoo, journalist, host, and executive producer \n Jay Chandrasekhar, director, actor, comedian, and writer\n Shanthi Chandrasekar, visual artist\n Aneesh Chaganty, film director, screenwriter \n Sabu Dastagir, actor\n Nina Davuluri, Miss America 2014\n Param Gill, director, screenwriter and producer\n Kovid Gupta, bestselling author and screenwriter \n Reef Karim, actor, director, writer, and producer \n Neeraj Khemlani, producer for CBS News\' 60 Minutes\n Bharti Kirchner, writer\n Shirish Korde, artist\n Adam Bhala Lough, director, screenwriter\n Tirlok Malik, filmmaker and actor\n Benny Mathews, film and music video director\n Faris McReynolds, painter and musician\n Mira Nair, director and producer\n Sunil Nayar, TV writer and producer; producer of CSI: Miami\n Oopali Operajita, choreographer and Odissi and Bharatanatyam artiste; Distinguished Fellow, Carnegie Mellon University\n Yatin Patel, photographer and artist\n Mythili Prakash, Bharatanatyam dancer and choreographer\n Asha Puthli, singer-songwriter, producer and actress\n Sarayu Rao, actor and director\n Harish Saluja, filmmaker\n Stephanie Sengupta, producer and writer\n Mehul Shah, actor, director, writer, and producer\n Adi Shankar, producer and actor \n Naren Shankar, TV writer, producer and director; an executive producer of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation\n M. Night Shyamalan, director, filmmaker\n Tarsem Singh, director\n Rohit Gupta, director, producer\n Manick Sorcar, animator, artist, and producer\n Babu Subramaniam, director\n Tina Sugandh, entertainer\n Julie Titus, model, contestant on America\'s Next Top Model\n Serena Varghese, voice actress\n Prashanth Venkataramanujam, television writer, actor, and producer\n\nActors and actresses\n\n Karan Soni, actor\n Simran Judge, actor\n Ravi Patel, actor\n Devika Bhise, actress\n Waris Ahluwalia, fashion designer\n Aziz Ansari, actor and comedian\n Gabrielle Anwar, actress\n Erick Avari, actor\n Sunkrish Bala, actor\n Firdous Bamji, actor\n Purva Bedi, actress\n Summer Bishil, actress\n Karan Brar, film and TV actor\n Samrat Chakrabarti, actor\n Melanie Chandra, actress\n Michelle Khare, actress, Youtuber, and television host\n Sabu Dastagir, actor\n Sujata Day, actress\n Manish Dayal, actor\n Noureen DeWulf, actress\n Raja Fenske, actor\n Janina Gavankar, actress\n Namrata Singh Gujral, actress\n Sakina Jaffrey, actress\n Poorna Jagannathan, actress and producer\n Avan Jogia, actor\n Mindy Kaling, actress, writer, producer, comedian\n Ravi Kapoor, actor\n Rahul Kohli, actor \n Deep Katdare, actor\n Nivedita Kulkarni, actress\n Shishir Kurup, actor\n Nakul Dev Mahajan, Bollywood dancer and choreographer\n Sunny Leone, actor and former pornographic actress\n Tirlok Malik, actor\n Shelly Malil, film and TV actor\n Rizwan Manji, actor\n Aasif Mandvi, actor\n Sunita Mani, actress\n Ajay Mehta, TV actor\n Ajay Naidu, actor\n Anjul Nigam, actor\n\n Maulik Pancholy, actor\n Devika Parikh, actress\n Kal Penn, actor\n Danny Pudi, actor\n Ritesh Rajan, actor\n Sendhil Ramamurthy, actor\n Dileep Rao, actor\n Navi Rawat, actress\n Sonal Shah, actress\n Sheetal Sheth, actress\n Tiya Sircar, actress\n Omi Vaidya, actor\n Sugith Varughese,Indian-born Canadian-born actor with American citizenship\n Annet Mahendru, actress\n Nitya Vidyasagar, actress\n\nComedians\n\n Aziz Ansari\n Aman Ali\n Arj Barker\n Aasif Mandvi\n Jay Chandrasekhar\n Hari Kondabolu\nHasan Minhaj\n Nimesh Patel\n Adam Mamawala\n Rajiv Satyal\n Anish Shah\n Paul Varghese, appeared on Last Comic Standing\n Aparna Nancherla\n Lilly Singh\n\nCulinary arts\n Ashok Bajaj, restaurateur\n Vishwesh Bhatt, chef\n Maneet Chauhan, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author\n H. Jay Dinshah, founded the American Vegan Society\n Raghavan Iyer, chef, author, culinary educator\n Vikas Khanna, Michelin starred celebrity chef, restaurateur, author, filmmaker, and TV host\n Jehangir Mehta, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author\n Rajat Parr, sommelier\n Suvir Saran, Michelin starred chef and author\n Aarti Sequeira (b. 1978), TV host on Food Network\n Vikram Sunderam (b. 1967), chef and author\n Padma Lakshmi\n\nFashion designers\n Naeem Khan\n Vashtie Kola\n Bibhu Mohapatra\n Rachel Roy (b. 1974)\n Sachin & Babi\n\nModels\n Anchal Joseph, contestant on Cycle 7 of America\'s Next Top Model\n Pooja Kumar, model\n Akshay Kapoor, model, actor\n\nMedia\n\n Manu Raju (b. 1980), CNN journalist anchor, reporter\n Deepak Ananthapadmanabha, online journalist\n Sanjay Gupta, journalist, medical correspondent, neurosurgeon \n Rajiv Chandrasekaran, assistant managing editor for continuous news, The Washington Post; author of Imperial Life in the Emerald City \n Syma Chowdhry, television host, reporter, and producer\n Priya David, correspondent for CBS News\n Dinesh D\'Souza, political commentator, author and filmmaker. Former president of The King\'s College, New York\n Deepa Fernandes, host of the WBAI radio program Wakeup Call\n Deepti Hajela, journalist for the Associated Press\n Pico Iyer, author and journalist for Time magazine, Harper\'s Magazine, Condé Nast Traveler, and The New York Review of Books\n Shibani Joshi, reporter for the Fox Business Network\n Sukanya Krishnan, news anchor for CW 11 Morning News on WPIX\n Seema Mody, news reporter/anchor for CNBC\n Mish Michaels, meteorologist for the WBZ-TV Weather Team\n Vinita Nair, anchor of World News Now and America This Morning on ABC\n Kevin Negandhi, sports anchor for ESPN SportsCenter\n Reena Ninan, Middle East correspondent for Fox News Channel\n Asra Nomani, journalist\n Safiya Nygaard, YouTube beauty creator\n Uma Pemmaraju, senior news anchor for Fox News Channel\n Ramesh Ponnuru, senior editor of the National Review magazine\n Ash-har Quraishi, correspondent, WTTW Chicago; former KCTV Chief Investigative Reporter; former CNN Islamabad Bureau Chief\n Gopal Raju, pioneer of Indian American ethnic media\n Aneesh Raman, first Indian-American presidential speechwriter under President Barack Obama, former CNN Middle East correspondent\n Simran Sethi, journalist\n Alpana Singh, television personality\n Lakshmi Singh, NPR\'s national midday newscaster\n Hari Sreenivasan, correspondent for CBS News and the PBS NewsHour\n Sreenath Sreenivasan, Columbia University professor; WABC-TV technology reporter\n Ali Velshi, business news anchor for CNN\n Zain Verjee, CNN anchor\n Fareed Zakaria, columnist for Time magazine and host of Fareed Zakaria GPS on CNN\n Lilly Singh, YouTuber of Indian descent widely known as IISuperwomanII, ranked tenth on the Forbes list of the world\'s highest paid YouTube stars, ranked first on 2017 Forbes Top Influencers List in the entertainment category\n Liza Koshy, actress, YouTube comedian and television host\n\nMusicians\n\n Rick Parashar (1963-2014), producer\n Sandeep Das (b. 1971), won the Grammy award for Best World Music Album, at the 59th Grammy Awards, 2017\n Sonika Vaid, Indian-American singer\n Bamboo Shoots, dance-rock band\n 6ix, record producer\n Rajiv Dhall, Indian-American singer\n Sid Sriram, Indian-American singer\n Jeff Bhasker, producer\n Nicki Minaj, rapper and singer-songwriter\n Sameer Bhattacharya, one of two guitarists in the Texas alternative rock band Flyleaf\n Das Racist, alternative hip hop group; two of the three members are Indian\n Anoop Desai, finalist on the eighth season of American Idol\n Falu, singer and songwriter\t\n Sameer Gadhia, lead vocalist in Young the Giant\n Heems, rapper\n Ravi Hutheesing, singer-songwriter, guitarist \n iLoveMakonnen, rapper\t\n Daya, singer\n Sandeep Khurana, new age music and world music composer \n Raja Kumari, singer and songwriter\n Vijay Iyer, jazz musician and composer\n Sunny Jain, dhol player, drummer, and composer\t\n Norah Jones, singer, songwriter and actress; winner of multiple Grammy Awards\n Rajan Somasundaram, Music Composer, Songwriter and multi instrumentalist \n Karsh Kale, Indian producer, composer and musician\n Tony Kanal, two-time Grammy Award winner, bass player for No Doubt\n Savan Kotecha, songwriter\n KSHMR, electronic musician, record producer\n Arun Luthra, jazz musician\n Sanjaya Malakar, finalist on the sixth season of  American Idol\n Mathai, finalist on season 2 of The Voice\n Zarin Mehta, executive director of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra\n Zubin Mehta, former conductor, New York Philharmonic Orchestra; receiver of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\n Sanjay Mishra, guitarist and composer\n Vidya Vox, YouTube musician\t\n Vasant Rai, performer of Indian music\t\n Paul Sabu, producer\n Amar Sandhu, singer\t\n Shaheen Sheik, songwriter\t\n Bikram Singh, singer\n Mickey Singh, Indian-born singer from Detroit, MI \n Ramesh Srivastava, singer \n Ambi Subramaniam, violinist and composer\n Bindu Subramaniam, singer-songwriter\n Kim Thayil, named among 100th greatest guitarists of all time by Rolling Stone\n Zoya, California-based singer and guitarist\n Nav, Canada-based rapper and producer\n Sanjay Patel, animator and director and also illustrator of Pixar\n Shirish Korde (b. 1945), composer\n Dave Baksh (b. 1980), guitarist of punk band Sum 41\n Raveena Aurora, alternative singer\n\nBusiness\n\n Parag Agrawal, CEO of Twitter\n Anu Aiyengar, managing director of North American mergers and acquisitions of JPMorgan Chase & Co\n Nikesh Arora (b. 1968), CEO, Palo Alto Networks, former Google executive and COO, Softbank\n Samir Arora, former CEO of Mode Media\n Ramani Ayer, former chairman and CEO of The Hartford Financial Services Group\n Prith Banerjee, managing director of Global Technology R&D at Accenture\n Somen Banerjee, co-founder of Chippendales\n Ajaypal Singh Banga, president and CEO of MasterCard\n Mahaboob Ben Ali (1927-2009), co-founder of Ben\'s Chili Bowl\n Manoj Bhargava, founder and CEO of Innovations Ventures LLC; the company is known for producing the 5-hour Energy drink\n Aneel Bhusri, co-founder and CEO of Workday, Inc.; partner at Greylock Partners; member of the board of directors of Intel\n Jagjeet (Jeet) S. Bindra, director of Edison International, Southern California Edison\n Amar Bose, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation\n Vanu Bose, American electrical engineer, founder of Vanu Inc, son of Amar Bose\n Sant Singh Chatwal, owner of the Bombay Palace chain of restaurants and Hampshire Hotels & Resorts\n Manu Daftary, money manager \n Bharat Desai, co-founder and chairman of Syntel\n Gururaj Deshpande, founder of Sycamore Networks\n Francis deSouza, CEO of Illumina\n Vinod Dham, designed the Intel Pentium Chip Processor; the "father of the Pentium Chip"\n Rono Dutta, former president of United Airlines, chairman of Air Sahara\n Rhona Fox, founder of Fox Fuse\n Rakesh Gangwal, former CEO and chairman of US Airways Group\n Asim Ghosh, president and chief executive officer at Husky Energy\n Ajit Gupta, founder and CEO of Speedera Networks, Aryaka Networks\n Rajat Gupta, former managing director of McKinsey & Company\n Rajiv Gupta, CEO of SkyHigh Networks, former general manager of Hewlett-Packard\n Umang Gupta, former CEO of Keynote Systems, Inc.\n Ajit Jain, president of Berkshire Hathaway Reinsurance Group\n Anjli Jain, founder and Managing Partner of EVC Ventures\n Anshu Jain, President of Cantor Fitzgerald and former co-CEO of Deutsche Bank\n Sanjay Jha, CEO of Global Foundries and former CEO of Motorola Mobile Devices\n Vyomesh Joshi, former executive vice president of Imaging and Printing Group, Hewlett-Packard\n John Kapoor, founder and executive chairman of Insys Therapeutics\n Vinod Khosla, founder of Khosla Ventures, co-founder of Sun Microsystems\nJay Vijayan, founder of Tekion Corp., former CIO of Tesla\n Arvind Krishna, CEO of IBM\n Anil Kumar, former senior partner and chairman, Asia Center of McKinsey & Company\n Sanjay Kumar, former CEO of Computer Associates International\n Thomas Kurian, CEO of Google Cloud, former President of product development at Oracle Corporation\n Sachin Lawande, president and CEO of Visteon\n Krishna Maharaj, businessman convicted of murder\n Bobby Mehta, former CEO and vice chairman of HSBC North America and former CEO of Transunion Company\n Sonny Mehta, Chairman/Editor in chief of Alfred A. Knopf\n Victor Menezes, chairman of Clearing House Association, former chairman and CEO of Citibank \n Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft\n Ranji H. Nagaswami, chief investment officer for AllianceBernstein Fund Investors\n Lakshmi Narayanan, vice chairman and former CEO of Cognizant Corporation\n Shantanu Narayen, CEO of Adobe Systems\n Indra Nooyi, former chairman and CEO of PepsiCo\n Dinesh Paliwal, chairman and CEO of Harman International\n Vikram Pandit, former CEO of Citigroup\n Suhas Patil, entrepreneur, venture capitalist & Founder of Cirrus Logic\n Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google, Alphabet Inc\n Prakash Puram, president and CEO of iXmatch\n Vivek Ranadivé, former CEO of TIBCO Software\n Sashi Reddi, serial entrepreneur, venture capitalist, angel investor, technologist, and philanthropist\n Kanwal Rekhi, former EVP and CTO of Novell\n Ashutosh Saxena, Founder & CEO of Caspar.AI, prolific author in the area of AI, and former Professor of Computer Science at Cornell University.\n Abbas Sadriwala, chairman and CEO of the Fort Lauderdale-based Wireless Logix Group\n Arun Sarin, former president of Vodafone\n Niraj Shah, CEO and co-founder of Wayfair\n Deven Sharma, former president of Standard & Poor\'s\n Ram Shriram, venture fund capitalist and one of the first investors in Google\n Pradeep Sindhu, founder and CTO of Juniper Networks\n K. R. Sridhar, founder and CEO of Bloom Energy\n Rajeev Suri, CEO of Nokia\n Abhi Talwalkar, president and CEO of LSI Corporation\n Thiru Vikram, CEO of Buffalo Automation\n Romesh Wadhwani, founder, chairman and CEO of Symphony Technology Group\n Padmasree Warrior, CEO of NIO (car company)\n\nCrime\n\nSomen Banerjee, pleaded guilty to attempted arson, racketeering, and murder for hire\nSant Singh Chatwal,  pled guilty to giving illegal campaign contributions for the Democratic Party\nGurmeet Singh Dhinsa, convicted of murder, racketeering, and kidnapping\nSyed Ghulam Nabi Fai, conspiracy to defraud the United States by violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act\nRajat Gupta, convicted of four criminal felony counts of conspiracy and securities fraud in the Galleon scandal\nNoshir Gowadia, convicted of espionage for China\nAnand Jon, convicted of rape\nJohn Kapoor, convicted of racketeering and conspiracy to commit wire fraud\nSubhash Kapoor, convicted of art theft and grand larceny\nAnil Kumar, pleaded guilty to insider trading\nShelley Malil, convicted of attempted premeditated murder and assault\nNirav Modi, fugitive charged with corruption, fraud, and money laundering\nJayant Patel, convicted of fraud and manslaughter\nPurvi Patel, convicted of feticide\nLakireddy Bali Reddy, convicted of immigration fraud and human trafficking\nPrakashanand Saraswati, fugitive and convicted child molester\nRavi Singh, convicted of four felony counts for illegally influencing the San Diego mayoral election\nSabrina De Sousa, convicted of kidnapping\nSneha Anne Philip, missing person\n\nLiterature\n\n Abraham Verghese, doctor and author; wrote In My Own Country and My Tennis Partner\n Agha Shahid Ali, poet\n Aimee Nezhukumatathil, poet\n Amitav Ghosh, Indo-nostalgic writer and winner of Prix Médicis étranger\n Anita Desai, novelist; shortlisted for the Booker prize three times; mother of Kiran Desai\nAnju Hasan, author, of Neti,Neti\n Anu Garg, author, speaker, and computer engineer\n Arnold Rampersad, biographer and literary critic\n Bhaskar Sunkara, political writer, founding editor and publisher of Jacobin and current publisher of London\'s Tribune\n Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor \n Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, author\n Davan Maharaj, journalist and former editor-in-chief and publisher of the Los Angeles Times\n Dhan Gopal Mukerji, first successful Indian man of letters in the US; winner of the Newbery Medal, 1928\n Gaiutra Bahadur, author\n Ghalib Shiraz Dhalla, author\n Indira Viswanathan Peterson, literary critic\n Indu Sundaresan, author\nIsmat Chughtai, author\n Janaki Ram, author\n Jhumpa Lahiri, Pulitzer Prize-winning author\n Kaavya Viswanathan, novelist\n Kiran Desai, winner of the 2006 Man Booker Prize\n Parag Khanna, author\n Paul Kalanithi, author\n Rajiv Joseph, playwright\n Ramya Ramana, poet\n Ravi Batra, bestselling author and economist\n Ravi Shankar, poet\n Rishi Reddi, author\n Roshani Chokshi novelist\nRupi Kaur, poet\n S. T. Joshi, literary critic\n Salman Rushdie, novelist and essayist\n Saumitra Saxena, Hindi poet, Bharatiya Jnanpith Navlekhana Award winner\n Shauna Singh Baldwin, novelist, winner of the Commonwealth Writers\' Prize\n Siddharth Katragadda, author, filmmaker, artist\n Siddhartha Mukherjee, physician, scientist and writer, 2011 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction\n Susham Bedi, author\n Thrity Umrigar, author of Bombay Time\n Tulika Mehrotra, author, journalist\n Usha Haley, author\n Vijay Prashad, Marxist writer, director for Tricontinental, Chief editor for LeftWord Books, written 30 books\n Vijay Seshadri, Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and essayist\n Vikram Seth, poet, novelist, travel writer, librettist, children\'s writer, biographer and memoirist\n\nMilitary\n\n Uday Singh Taunque, first Indian American to die in Operation Iraqi Freedom; posthumously awarded Bronze Star and Purple Heart gallantry awards \n Sunita Williams (b. 1965), astronaut and former Navy officer\n\nPolitics\n\nElected officials\n\nRam Villivalam- State Senator, 8th District- Illinois (Democrat)\n John Abraham, former mayor of Teaneck, New Jersey (Republican) \n Suhas Subramanyam (b. 1986), Virginia\'s 87th House of Delegates district Representative (Democrat)\n Saqib Ali, former member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Harvinder "Harry" Anand, mayor of Laurel Hollow, New York (Republican) \n Sam Arora, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Kumar P. Barve, member of the Maryland House of Delegates, former (majority leader) (Democratic), the first Indian American elected to a state legislature \n Ravinder Bhalla, mayor, Hoboken, Hudson County, New Jersey (Democratic), the first turban-wearing Sikh American mayor in the United States to be elected by a municipality\'s residents, in November 2017\n Satveer Chaudhary, former Minnesota State Senator (Democratic)\n Upendra J. Chivukula, member of the New Jersey General Assembly (Democratic) \n Swati Dandekar (b. 1951), Iowa State Senator (Democratic) \n Mervyn M. Dymally, 41st Lieutenant Governor of California (1975–1979);  member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1981–1993) (Democratic) \n Kashmir Gill, mayor of Yuba City, California (Republican)\n Jay Goyal, member of the Ohio State Representative (Democratic) \n Raj Goyle, member of the Kansas State Representative (Democratic) \n Faz Husain, first native of India to win elected office in Michigan (Democratic) \n Bobby Jindal, former Governor of Louisiana; vice chairman of the Republican Governors Association (Republican)\n Nimi McConigley, first Indian American women to serve in any American State legislature served in the Wyoming State Legislature from 1994 until 1996(Republican)\n Ameya Pawar, served as the alderman for the 47th Ward of the City of Chicago \n Aruna Miller, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Kshama Sawant, member of the Seattle City Council.\n Balvir Singh, first Indian American member, Board of Chosen Freeholders, Burlington County, New Jersey, first Sikh American to win a countywide election in New Jersey, in November 2017 (Democratic)\n Jenifer Rajkumar, Lower Manhattan district leader and candidate for the New York State Assembly (Democratic)\n\nFederal elected officials\n\n Kamala Harris (b. 1964), current Vice President of the United States, former and 32nd Attorney General of California, former U.S. Senator from California\n Ami Bera, U.S. Representative for California\'s 7th congressional district\n Raja Krishnamoorthi, U.S. Representative for Illinois\'s 8th congressional district\n Ro Khanna, U.S. Representative for California\'s 17th congressional district\n Pramila Jayapal, U.S. Representative for Washington\'s 7th congressional district\n Dalip Singh Saund, first Asian and Indian American member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California\n\nCivil servants \n\n Arif Alikhan (b. 1968), former Assistant Secretary for Policy Development at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security; former Deputy Mayor for Homeland Security and Public Safety for the City of Los Angeles; former senior adviser to Attorneys General John Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales\n Preeta D. Bansal (b. 1965), member and past chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom; former Solicitor General of New York\n Preet Bharara, United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York\n Cathy Bissoon, judge for the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania (Democratic)\n Nisha Desai Biswal, current Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs\n Saikat Chakrabarti, chief of staff to Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, the U.S. Representative from New York\'s 14th congressional district representing parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City\n Joy Cherian, first Asian head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission\n Aneesh Chopra, Federal Chief Technology Officer of the U.S.\n Har Dayal, founder of the Ghadar Party\n Sabrina De Sousa, ex-CIA officer; is suing the US government for diplomatic immunity\n Gurbir Grewal, Bergen County, New Jersey prosecutor, first Sikh American county prosecutor in the U.S.,\n Vanita Gupta, Former Lawyer for ACLU and current United States Associate Attorney General\n Nikki Haley, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations; former Governor of South Carolina (Republican)\n Rashad Hussain, U.S. Special Envoy to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\n Neel Kashkari, former interim Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability in the United States Department of the Treasury (Republican)\n Neal Katyal, Solicitor General of the United States\n Atul Keshap, U.S. Ambassador to Sri Lanka and Maldives\n Gopal Khanna, chief information officer of Minnesota\n Narayana Kocherlakota, president of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis\n Kris Kolluri, New Jersey Commissioner of Transportation\n\n Vivek Kundra, Federal Chief Information Officer of the US\n Arun Majumdar, director of the U.S. Department of Energy\'s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy\n Raj Mukherji (b. 1984), Deputy Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey; candidate for the New Jersey State Legislature\n Shekar Narasimhan, co-chair of the Democratic National Committee Indo-American Council\n Ajit Pai, serving as chairman at the Federal Communications Commission\n Farah Pandith, Special Representative to Muslim Communities for the United States Department of State\n Rachel Paulose, former United States Attorney for the District of Minnesota\n Rajiv Shah (b. 1973), former Under Secretary of Agriculture for Research, Education, and Economics; former Administrator of USAID; President, Rockefeller Foundation\n Sonal Shah, member of the Obama-Biden Transition Project advisory board\n Islam A. Siddiqui, Chief Agricultural Negotiator in the Office of the United States Trade Representative\n Sabita Singh, first judge of Indian descent in Massachusetts history\n Subra Suresh, director of National Science Foundation\n Vinai Thummalapally (b. 1954), served as U.S. Ambassador to Belize\n Richard Verma (b. 1968), Assistant Secretary for Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, at the Department of State\n Surya Yalamanchili, 2010 US Congressional candidate\n\nFederal judges\n Vince Girdhari Chhabria, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California (Democratic)\nNicholas Ranjan, District Judge, United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania\n Neomi Rao, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit\n Manish S. Shah, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois\n Srikanth Srinivasan, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit\n Indira Talwani, judge of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts\n Amul Thapar, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit (Republican)\n\nReligion\n\n Chitrabhanu Jain, founded the Jain Meditation International Center in Manhattan, New York City\n Padmanabh Jaini, scholar of Jainism\n Sushil Kumarji, Jain Acharya\n Anantanand Rambachan, Hindu scholar, author, and professor of religion at St. Olaf College\n Prem Rawat, also known as Guru Maharaji Ji, head of the Divine Light Mission and later organizations\n Eboo Patel, member of New Faith Advisory Council\n Muzammil Siddiqi, Ph.D., chairman, Fiqh Council of North America\n Ravi Zacharias, Christian evangelist and apologist\n\nScience and technology\n\n Yellapragada Subbarow (1895-1948), pioneering biochemist who discovered ATP, the human body\'s energy molecule.\n Ajay Bhatt (b. 1957), co-inventor of the USB; Chief Client Platform Architect at Intel\n Ajit V. Pai, chairman of the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC)\n Ajit Varki, physician-scientist\nAmar Gopal Bose, PhD in electrical engineering, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation \nBimal Kumar Bose, pioneer in power electronics\nAmit Goyal, scientist and inventor\n Amit Singhal, Google Fellow, the designation the company reserves for its elite master engineers in the area of "ranking algorithm"\n Amitabha Ghosh, the only Asian on NASA\'s Mars Pathfinder mission\n Anil Dash, blogger and technologist\n Anirvan Ghosh, neuroscientist\n Govindjee, biochemist\n Arjun Makhijani, electrical and nuclear engineer; president of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research\n Arun Netravali, scientist; former president of Bell Labs; former CTO of Lucent; pioneer of digital technology, including HDTV and MPEG4\n Arvind Rajaraman, theoretical physicist and string theorist\n Avtar Saini, co-led the development of the Pentium processor Intel; holds seven patents related to microprocessor design\n Bedabrata Pain, co-inventor of the active pixel sensor\n C. Kumar N. Patel, developed the carbon dioxide laser, used as a cutting tool in surgery and industry\n Deepak Pandya, neuroanatomist\n Arati Prabhakar, director of DARPA\n Dhairya Dand, inventor and artist\n DJ Patil, Chief Data Scientist of the United States Office of Science and Technology Policy\n George Sudarshan, physicist, author; first to propose the existence of the tachyon\n Jogesh Pati, theoretical physicist at the University of Maryland, College Park\n Kalpana Chawla, NASA space shuttle astronaut, who died in space shuttle blast\n Khem Shahani, microbiologist who conducted pioneer research on probiotics; discovered the DDS-1 strain of Lactobacillus acidophilus\n Krishan Sabnani, engineer and senior vice president of the Networking Research Laboratory at Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs in New Jersey\n Krishna Bharat, principal scientist at Google; created Google News\t\n Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, pioneer in lithium and lithium ion battery technologies, professor, Northeastern university, Boston, Massachusetts and president, E-KEM Sciences, Needham, Massachusetts\n Mahadev Satyanarayanan, computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University; pioneer of research in mobile and pervasive computing\n Mani Lal Bhaumik, contributor to excimer laser technology\n Mathukumalli Vidyasagar, control theorist\n Narinder Singh Kapany, engineer, the "father of fiber optics"\n Nalini Nadkarni, ecologist who pioneered the study of Costa Rican rain forest canopies\n Noshir Gowadia, design engineer\n Om Malik, technology journalist and blogger\n Pran Nath, theoretical physicist at Northeastern University\n Pranav Mistry, Sixth Sense Project\n Raj Reddy, founder of the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University; winner of the Turing Award\n Raja Chari, astronaut chosen for Artemis moon mission\n Rajeev Motwani, professor, angel investor\n Rajiv Dutta, technology manager\n Ramesh K. Agarwal, aviation pioneer; William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University\n Ramesh Raskar, Femto-camera inventor, MIT Professor\n Rangaswamy Srinivasan, member of the Inventors\' Hall of Fame for pioneering work on excimer laser surgery\n Ruchi Sanghvi, first female engineer of Facebook; former VP of Operations, Dropbox\n Sabeer Bhatia, co-founder of Hotmail\t\n Samir Mitragotri, professor of chemical engineering and bioengineering at University of California, Santa Barbara\n Satya N. Atluri, aerospace and mechanics, Excellence in Aviation Medal, FAA, 1998; Recipient of Padma Bhushan in 2013 in Science & Engineering from the President of India, elected to membership to National Academies of Engineering, USA (1996) and India (1997)\n Salman Khan, founder of Khan Academy\n Sharmila Bhattacharya, head of the Biomodel Performance and Behavior laboratory at NASA Ames Research Center\n VA Shiva Ayyadurai, inventor, scientist, former guest lecturer at MIT\n Siddhartha Mukherjee, scientist, physician, winner of Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction\n Siva S. Banda, aerospace engineer and researcher, recipient of a Silver Medal from the Royal Aeronautical Society, a Presidential Rank Award, and elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering\n Subhash Kak, head of the Computer Science department at Oklahoma State University\n Subrah Iyar, co-founder and CEO of Webex Communications\n Subrata Roy, plasma physicist, professor of aerospace engineering at University of Florida, inventor of the Wingless Electromagnetic Air Vehicle\n Sunita Williams, NASA astronaut\n Shya Chitaley - Paleo botanist\n Swapan Chattopadhyay, particle accelerator physicist \nSwati Mohan, NASA space engineer \n Thomas Anantharaman, computer statistician specializing in Bayesian inference\n Thomas Zacharia, computational scientist\n V. Mohan Reddy, paediatric cardiothoracic surgeon at Stanford\n Vamsi Mootha, physician-scientist and computational biologist\t\n Vic Gundotra, former senior vice president, Engineering for Google\n Vijay Raghunath Pandharipande, physicist\n Vineeta Rastogi, public health worker\nSirisha Bandla, space engineer\n\nMedicine\n\n Amit Patel, cardiovascular surgeon and stem cell researcher; first person to inject stem cells directly into the heart\n Anita Goel, Harvard-MIT physicist, physician; expert in nanobiophysics and nanotechnology; chairman and CEO of Nanobiosym; inventor of Gene-RADAR technology\n Ashutosh Tewari, professor of urology at New York Presbyterian Hospital; prostate cancer surgeon\n Atul Gawande, general and endocrine surgeon, professor, medical author, and National Book Award finalist\n Balamurali Ambati, world\'s youngest doctor, at age 17\n Deepak Chopra, alternative medicine advocate, author and public speaker\n E. Premkumar Reddy, oncologist; director of Fels institute of cancer research and molecular biology at Temple University\n Harvinder Sahota, cardiologist; inventor of the FDA-approved perfusion balloon angioplasty; holds patents of 24 other medical inventions\n Inder Verma, Professor of Molecular Biology in the Laboratory of Genetics at Salk Institute for Biological Studies and University of California, San Diego\n Joia Mukherjee, associate professor with the Division of Global Health Equity at the Brigham and Women\'s Hospital and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School \n Lall Ramnath Sawh, urologist and a pioneer of kidney transplantation in the Caribbean\n Paul Antony, MD, MPH, chief medical officer for the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA)\n Ragavendra R. Baliga, FACC, FACP, FRCP (Edin), Professor of Medicine at; Ohio State University College of Medicine\n Sangeeta Bhatia, Harvard-MIT doctor and scientist; engineer of artificial liver cells\n Sanjay Gupta, neurosurgeon; CNN chief medical correspondent;\n Vivek Murthy (b. 1977), 19th and former Surgeon General of the United States; former vice admiral of U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Officer Corps\n Aseem Shukla (b. 1972), Professor of Surgery (Urology) at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, co-founder of Hindu American Foundation.\n\nSports\n\n Prakash Amritraj (b. 1983), tennis player (born in the US)\n Stephen Amritraj (b. 1984), tennis player\n Sanjay Beach (b. 1966), former NFL wide receiver; played for the San Francisco 49ers and the Green Bay Packers\n Mohini Bhardwaj, second Indian American Olympic medalist, 2004 Summer Olympics silver medalist in gymnastics\n Vinay Bhat, chess grandmaster\n Raj Bhavsar, third Indian American Olympic medalist, 2008 Summer Olympics bronze medalist in the team gymnastics competition\n Shaun Bridgmohan, jockey\n Brandon Chillar, NFL player, linebacker for the Green Bay Packers (father of Indian descent)\n Sean Desai (b. 1983), NFL coach and defensive coordinator for the Chicago Bears\n Jignesh Desai, cricketer\n Sonjay Dutt, TNA pro wrestler\n The Great Khali, WWE pro wrestler\n Alexi Grewal, first Indian American to win an Olympic medal, gold medalist in 1984 Summer Olympics in cycling\n Sunil Gulati, former President of the United States Soccer Federation\n Carlos Cordeiro, President of the United States Soccer Federation\n Amjad Khan, cricketer \n Ibrahim Khaleel, cricketer\n Noshtush Kenjige, cricketer \n Thirunavukkarasu Kumaran, cricketer\n Anil Lashkari, cricketer \n Sanjay Lal, wide receivers coach for the Dallas Cowboys \n Manny Malhotra, NHL hockey player\n Rajiv Maragh, jockey\n Aditya Mishra, cricketer\n Sushil Nadkarni, American cricketer\n Ami Parekh, figure skater\n Japen Patel, cricketer \n Mrunal Patel, cricketer \n Sagar Patel, cricketer\n Timil Patel, cricketer\n Laxmi Poruri, tennis player\n Abhimanyu Rajp, cricketer\n Rajeev Ram, tennis player\n Annand Mahendra "Victor" Ramdin, professional poker player and philanthropist\n Sunitha Rao, tennis player\n Srini Santhanam, cricketer \n Jessy Singh, cricketer\n Monank Patel, USA cricket captain\n Saurabh Netravalkar, USA cricket captain\n Jaskaran Malhotra, cricketer\n Shikha Uberoi, tennis player\n Neha Uberoi, tennis player\n Shiva Vashishat, cricketer\n Adeel Alam, professional wrestler best known ring name Mustafa Ali (Indian mother)\n Abhimanyu Mishra, chess grandmaster\n\nYoga\n Bikram Choudhury (b. 1944), yoga guru\n Dipa Ma, yoga teacher\n Harbhajan Singh Yogi, introduced Kundalini Yoga and Sikhism to the US\n\nSee also\n Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin\n India–United States relations\n\nReferences \n\nLists of American people of Asian descent\n\nAmerican\nLists of American people by ethnic or national origin\nLists of people by ethnicity\nAmerican'},
 {'id': '39599865',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Eastern%20Americans',
  'title': 'Middle Eastern Americans',
  'text': 'Middle Eastern Americans are Americans of Middle Eastern background. According to the United States Census Bureau, the term "Middle Eastern American" applies to anyone of West Asian or North African origin. This includes people whose background is from the various Middle Eastern and West Asian ethnic groups, such as the Kurds and Assyrians, as well as immigrants from modern-day countries of the Arab world, Iran, Israel, Turkey and sometimes Armenia.\n\nAlthough once considered Asian Americans, the modern definition of "Asian American" now excludes people with West Asian backgrounds.\n\nHistory\n\nOne of the first large groups of immigration from the Middle East to the United States came by boat from the Ottoman Empire in the late 1800s. Although U.S. officials referred to them as Turkish, most referred to themselves as Syrian, and it is estimated that 85 percent of these Ottoman immigrants came from modern Lebanon. Later, new categories were created for Syrians and Lebanese.\n\nThe number of Armenians who migrated to the US from 1820 to 1898 is estimated to be around 4,000 and according to the Bureau of Immigration, 54,057 Armenians entered the US between 1899 and 1917, with the vast majority coming from the Ottoman Empire. The largest Armenian American communities at that time were located in New York City; Fresno; Worcester, Massachusetts; Boston; Philadelphia; Chicago; Jersey City; Detroit; Los Angeles; Troy, New York; and Cleveland.\n\nAnother wave of immigration from the Middle East began in 1946, peaking after the 1960s. Since 1968, these immigrants have arrived from such countries as Iran, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and Lebanon.\n\nPopulation\n\nThe population of Middle Eastern Americans totals at least 10 million. In 2012 Pew Research estimated the population of Arab Americans to be 3.7 million people) and in 2014 the U.S. Secretary of Commerce stated that there were over 1 million Turkish Americans in the U.S.\n\nThe population of Middle Eastern Americans includes both Arabs and non-Arabs. In their definitions of Middle Eastern Americans, United States Census Bureau and the National Health Interview Survey include peoples (diasporic or otherwise) from present-day Iran, Israel, Turkey and Armenia.\n\nAs of 2013, an estimated 1.02 million immigrants from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) lived in the United States, making up 2.5 percent of the country\'s 41.3 million immigrants. Middle Eastern and North African immigrants have primarily settled in California (20%), Michigan (11%), and New York (10%). Data from the United States Census Bureau shows that from 2009 to 2013, the four counties with the most MENA immigrants were Los Angeles County, California; Wayne County, Michigan (Detroit), Cook County, Illinois (Chicago), and Kings County, New York (Brooklyn); these four counties collectively "accounted for about 19 percent of the total MENA immigrant population in the United States."\n\nBy ethnicity \nAlthough the United States census has recorded race and ethnicity since the first census in 1790, this information has been voluntary since the end of the Civil War (non-whites were counted differently from 1787 to 1868 for the purpose of determining congressional representation). As such, these statistics do not include those who did not volunteer this optional information, and so the census underestimates the total populations of each ethnicity actually present.\n\nAlthough tabulated, "religious responses" were reported as a single total and not differentiated, despite totaling 1,089,597 in 2000.\n\nIndependent organizations provide improved estimates of the total populations of races and ethnicities in the US using the raw data from the US Census and other surveys.\n\nSimilarly, the Arab-American Institute estimated the population of Arab Americans at 3.7\xa0million in 2012.\n\nAccording to a 2002 Zogby International survey, the majority of Arab Americans are Christian; the survey showed that 24% of Arab Americans were Muslim, 63% were Christian and 13% belonged to another religion or no religion. Christian Arab Americans include Maronites, Melkites, Chaldeans, Orthodox Christians, and Copts; Muslim Arab Americans primarily adhere to one of the two main Islamic denominations, Sunni and Shia.\n\nNotable People\n\nAcademia\nElias J. Corey, organic chemistry professor at Harvard University, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Lebanese parents)\n Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American scientist, known as the "father of femtochemistry", winner of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry\nMichael E. DeBakey, pioneering Lebanese-American cardiovascular surgeon and researcher, 1963 Lasker Award laureate\nOmar M. Yaghi, Jordanian-American reticular chemistry pioneer; winner of the 2018 Wolf Prize in Chemistry\nMostafa El-Sayed, Egyptian-American US National Medal of Science laureate; leading nanoscience researcher; known for the spectroscopy rule named after him, the El-Sayed rule\n Farouk El-Baz Egyptian-American space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon\n Huda Zoghbi, Lebanese-American physician and medical researcher who discovered the genetic cause of the Rett syndrome\n Huda Akil, pioneering Syrian-American neuroscientist and medical researcher\n Yasmine Belkaid, Algerian-American immunologist, professor and a senior investigator at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases\n Hunein Maassab, Syrian-American professor of epidemiology and the inventor of the live attenuated influenza vaccine\n Joanne Chory, plant biologist and geneticist (Lebanese)\n Anthony Atala, Director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (Lebanese)\n Noureddine Melikechi, Algerian-American Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physicist, member of the Mars Science Laboratory\nMichel T. Halbouty, Lebanese-American geologist and geophysicist; pioneer in oil field research\n Adah al-Mutairi (Saudi Arabian), inventor and scholar in nanotechnology and nanomedicine\n M. Amin Arnaout, Lebanese-American nephrologist and biologist\n Essam Heggy, Egyptian-American Planetary scientist\n Shadia Habbal, Syrian-American astronomer and physicist specialized in Space physics\nMohamed Atalla, engineer, inventor of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), pioneer in silicon semiconductors and security systems, founder of Atalla Corporation\n Charles Elachi, Lebanese-American professor of electrical engineering and planetary science at Caltech and the former director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory\n Fawwaz T. Ulaby Syrian-American professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, former Vice President of Research for the University of Michigan; first Arab-American winner of the IEEE Edison Medal\nTaher ElGamal, Egyptian-American cryptographer, inventor of the ElGamal discrete log cryptosystem and the ElGamal signature scheme\n Ali H. Nayfeh, Palestinian-American mechanical engineer, the 2014 recipient of Benjamin Franklin Medal in mechanical engineering\n Dina Katabi, Syrian-American Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT and the director of the MIT Wireless Center.\nAbbas El Gamal, Egyptian-American electrical engineer, educator and entrepreneur, the recipient of the 2012 Claude E. Shannon Award\n Oussama Khatib, roboticist and a professor of computer science \n Elias Zerhouni, former director of the National Institutes of Health (Algerian)\n Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Lebanese-American technology innovator. He received 43 patents covering his work. Among the patents were reported innovations in television transmission.\n Mohammad S. Obaidat (Jordanian), computer science/engineering academic and scholar\nCharbel Farhat, Vivian Church Hoff Professor of Aircraft Structures; Director of the Army High Performance Computing Research Center; Chair of the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University (Lebanese)\nHany Farid, professor of computer science at Dartmouth College, pioneer in Digital forensics (Egyptian)\nAhmed Tewfik, Egyptian-American electrical engineer, Professor and college administrator\nMunther A. Dahleh, Professor and Director at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Palestinian)\nIsmail al-Faruqi, philosopher, professor (Palestinian)\nFouad Ajami, Professor of International Relations (Lebanese)\nSaddeka Arebi, professor of anthropology at UC Berkeley (Libyan)\nMohammed Adam El-Sheikh, executive director of the Fiqh Council of North America (Sudanese)\nSamih Farsoun, sociology professor at the American University (Palestinian)\nPhilip Khuri Hitti, historian of Arab culture and history (Lebanese)\nPhilip S. Khoury, Ford International Professor of History and Associate Provost at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Lebanese)\nLaura Nader, cultural anthropologist (Lebanese)\nEdward Said, Palestinian-Lebanese American literary theorist and former professor at Columbia University\nAhmed Ismail Samatar, prominent writer, professor and former dean of the Institute for Global Citizenship at Macalester College; Somali ancestry\n Nada Shabout, art historian and professor of art history at University of North Texas (Palestinian-Iraqi)\n Naseer Aruri, Chancellor Professor of Political Science at University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth (Palestinian)\n Nadia Abu El Haj, Author & Professor of Anthropology at Barnard College and subject of a major tenure controversy case at Columbia University (Palestinian)\n Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, former Director of Graduate Studies at Northwestern University, father of Lila Abu-Lughod (Palestinian)\n Lila Abu-Lughod, professor of Anthropology and Women\'s and Gender Studies at Columbia University (Palestinian)\n Leila Farsakh, professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts, Boston (Palestinian)\n Samih Farsoun, professor of sociology at American University and editor of Arab Studies Quarterly (Palestinian)\n Nadia Hijab, Journalist with Middle East Magazine and Senior Fellow at the Institute for Palestine Studies (Palestinian)\n Rashid Khalidi, Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University (Palestinian-Lebanese)\n Joseph Massad, professor at Columbia University known for his work on nationalism and sexuality in the Arab world (Palestinian)\n Hisham Sharabi  Professor Emeritus of History and Umar al-Mukhtar Chair of Arab Culture at Georgetown University (Palestinian)\n Rosemarie Said Zahlan, historian, journalist & author, sister of Edward Said (Palestinian-Lebanese)\n Steven Salaita, former Professor of English at Virginia Tech, winner of Myers Outstanding Book Award for the Study of Human Rights 2007 (Palestinian)\n Majid Khadduri, academic and founder of the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies Middle East Studies program (Iraqi)\n Thomas L. Saaty, Assyrian-Iraqi University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh\n Ella Shohat, professor, author and activist (Iraqi-Jewish)\n Saadi Simawe, translator, novelist and teacher (Iraqi)\n Aziz Sancar, Biochemist and molecular biologist specializing in DNA repair, cell cycle checkpoints, and circadian clock. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2015 (Turkish)\n Donny George Youkhanna,  Iraqi archaeologist, anthropologist, author, curator, and scholar, and a visiting professor at Stony Brook University in New York, internationally known as "the man who saved the Iraqi National Museum."\nImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, teaches religion, science, and freedom at the University of Maryland, College Park; directs the Minaret of Freedom Institute (Palestinian)\nMuhsin Mahdi, Iraqi-American Islamologist and Arabist.\nTalal Asad, anthropologist at the CUNY Graduate Center. (Saudi Arabian)\nMitch Daniels, President of Purdue University (Syrian)\nDonna Shalala, President of the University of Miami (Lebanese)\nJoseph E. Aoun, president of Northeastern University (Lebanese)\nRobert Khayat, chancellor of the University of Mississippi (Lebanese)\nBehnaam Aazhang, J.S. Abercrombie Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering at Rice University (Iranian)\nKamyar Abdi, archaeologist, former assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College (Iranian)\nAlexander Abian, mathematician, Iowa State University (Iranian-Armenian)\nMohammad Javad Abdolmohammadi,  John E. Rhodes Professor of Accounting at Bentley University since 1988. (Iranian)\nErvand Abrahamian, historian of Middle Eastern (particularly Iranian) history at City University of New York (Iranian)\nJanet Afary, author, feminist activist, and professor of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. (Iranian)\nGholam Reza Afkhami, senior scholar and director of Social Science Research and International Studies at the Foundation for Iranian Studies\nShahriar Afshar, physicist and inventor who is the namesake of the Afshar experiment\nNewsha Ajami, hydrologist specializing in urban water policy and sustainable water management; professor and Director of Urban Water Policy program at Stanford University\nAbass Alavi, professor of radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Neurology at the University of Pennsylvania\nLeonardo Alishan,  professor of Persian and Comparative Literature at the University of Utah (1978–1997)\nAbbas Alizadeh, archeologist of ancient Iran;  former Senior Research Associate and Director of the Iranian Prehistoric Project at the University of Chicago\nAbbas Amanat, Professor of History & International Studies at Yale University\nHooshang Amirahmadi, academic and political analyst. Professor of the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers University\nNahid Angha, Sufi scholar,. Co-director and co-founder of the International Association of Sufism (IAS), founder of the International Sufi Women Organization, and executive editor of the journal Sufism: An Inquiry\nAnousheh Ansari, first Iranian in space and the first female space tourist;\nNima Arkani-Hamed, theoretical physicist and professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey\nAbbas Ardehali, surgical director of UCLA\'s Heart and Lung Transplant program\nSaïd Amir Arjomand, professor of sociology at Stony Brook University, and Director of the Stony Brook Institute of Global Studies. Founding Editor of the Journal of Persianate Studies\nYahya Armajani, professor of history and soccer coach at Macalester College\nReza Aslan, scholar of religious studies, television host, and author of No God but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam and Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. Currently a professor of creative writing at University of California, Riverside. Board member of the National Iranian American Council (NAIC)\nAbolhassan Astaneh-Asl, structural engineer and professor at University of California, Berkeley; investigated the collapse of the World Trade Center towers due to the September 11 attacks\nFakhreddin Azimi, professor of history at the University of Connecticut\nBabak Azizzadeh, facial plastic and reconstructive surgeon, Keck School of Medicine of USC\nSussan Babaie, art historian and curator, specialist in Persian art and Islamic art of the early modern period.especially the Safavid dynasty\nShaul Bakhash, historian, expert in Iranian studies, George Mason University, Clarence J. Robinson Professor of History\nLaleh Bakhtiar, author and translator of 25 books about Islam, many of which deal with Sufism. She is best known for her 2007 translation of the Qur\'an, known as The Sublime Quran,\nMehrsa Baradaran, law professor specializing in banking law at University of Georgia\nIraj Bashiri, professor of History at the University of Minnesota specialist in the fields of Central Asian studies and Iranian studies\nAsef Bayat, professor of sociology and Middle Eastern studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\nManuel Berberian, earth scientist, specializing in earthquake seismology, geophysics, archaeoseismology, and environmental geoscience\nMina Bissell, scientist and biologist known for research on breast cancer; former head of life science at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\nGeorge Bournoutian, historian, professor of history at Iona College, and author of over 30 books on the history of Armenia, Iran, and the Caucasus\nJennifer Tour Chayes, mathematical physicist & theoretical computer scientist, and world renowned leading expert on the modeling & analysis of dynamically growing graphs. Founder, Technical Fellow, & Managing Director of Microsoft Research New England & Microsoft Research New York\nHouchang Chehabi, historian, expert in Iranian studies at the Frederick S. Pardee School of Global Studies, Boston University, where he is professor of International Relations and History\nAaron Cohen-Gadol, internationally renowned neurosurgeon specializing in surgical treatment of brain tumors and aneurysms\nHamid Dabashi, Professor of Iranian Studies and Comparative Literature at Columbia University in New York City\nJaleh Daie, scientist, former professor of biology and department chairs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Rutgers University\nRichard Danielpour, Professor of Composition, Manhattan School of Music\nTouraj Daryaee, Iranologist and historian at the University of California, Irvine\nArmen Der Kiureghian, professor of civil engineering at University of California, Berkeley, member of U.S. National Academy of Engineering,  current President of the American University of Armenia\nKeivan Deravi, economist at Auburn University at Montgomery\nSibel Edmonds, former translator who worked as a contractor for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI); founder of the National Security Whistleblowers Coalition (NSWBC)\nAzita Emami, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Professor of Electrical Engineering and Medical Engineering at Caltech; Executive Officer of the Department of Electrical Engineering at Caltech\nNader Engheta, H. Nedwill Ramsey Professor of Electrical and Systems Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. He has made pioneering contributions to the fields of metamaterials, transformation and plasmonic optics, nano- and graphene photonics, nano- and miniature antennas, and bio-inspired optical imaging, among many others\nDara Entekhabi, Bacardi and Stockholm Water Foundations Professor in the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering and the Department of Earth, Atmospheric & Planetary Sciences at MIT. His main expertise is in the field of hydrology.\nHaleh Esfandiari, Middle East scholar and former director of the Middle East Program at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. She is an expert on contemporary Iranian intellectual currents and politics, as well as women\'s issues and democratic developments in the Middle East. She was one of the four Iranian-Americans falsely convicted and detained by the Iranian government in May 2007.\nKamran Eshraghian, electrical engineer, notable for his work on VLSI and CMOS VLSI design\nFariba Fahroo, mathematician, program manager at the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Along with I. M. Ross, she has published papers in pseudospectral optimal control theory. The Ross–Fahroo lemma and the Ross–Fahroo pseudospectral method are named after her\nFereydoon Family, leading physicist in the field of nanotechnology and solid-state physics. He is the Samuel Candler Dobbs Professor of Physics at Emory University\nAllah Verdi Mirza Farman Farmaian, professor and head of Biology department at Rutgers University\nSattareh Farmanfarmaian, founder and director of the Tehran School of Social Work. Co-founder of the Family Planning Association of Iran, and former vice-president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation\nAlimorad Farshchian, medical doctor, medical author, and founder and director of The Center of Regenerative Medicine in Miami, Florida\nNariman Farvardin, President of Stevens Institute of Technology, and former Provost of University of Maryland\nBobak Ferdowsi, systems engineer at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory; served on the Cassini–Huygens and Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity mission.\nAlexander L. George (born Alexander L. Givargis), behavioral scientist specialist in the psychological effects of nuclear crisis management,  Graham H. Stuart Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University\nMohammadreza Ghadiri, chemist and professor of chemistry at The Scripps Research Institute.  Awarded the Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology in 1998\nRoozbeh Ghaffari, inventor, bioelectronics entrepreneur, biomedical engineering research faculty at Northwestern University\nZoubin Ghahramani, Professor of Information Engineering at the University of Cambridge\nKambiz GhaneaBassiri, professor of religion at Reed College, and author of A History of Islam in America and Competing Visions of Islam in the United States.\nM.R. Ghanoonparvar, Professor Emeritus of Persian and Comparative Literature at the faculty of Middle Eastern studies at the University of Texas, Austin\nMorteza Gharib, Hans W. Liepmann Professor of Aeronautics and Bio-Inspired Engineering at Caltech.\nJamshid Gharajedaghi, organizational theorist, management consultant, & adjunct professor of Systems thinking at Villanova University. B\nJohn Ghazvinian, author, historian and former journalist. Associate Director of the Middle East Center at the University of Pennsylvania.\nDoreen Granpeesheh, clinical psychologist,  and producer of the documentary Recovered: Journeys Through the Autism Spectrum and Back.\nVartan Gregorian, President of The Carnegie Corporation of New York and former president of Brown University\nMohammad Hajiaghayi, computer scientist known for his work in algorithms, game theory, network design, and big data.  Jack and Rita G. Minker professor at the University of Maryland Dept. of Computer Science.\nAli Hajimiri, inventor, technologist, and Thomas G. Myers Professor of Electrical Engineering at Caltech. Fellow of the National Academy of Inventors (NAI)\nReza Hamzaee, economist and BOG-Distinguished Professor of Economics at Missouri Western State University. Specialist in banking and managerial economics\nBabak Hassibi, electrical engineer, the inaugural Mose and Lillian S. Bohn Professor of Electrical Engineering. Specialist in communications, signal processing and control.\nPayam Heydari, Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Irvine\nShireen Hunter, Research Professor at the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at Georgetown University.\nAhmad Iravani, philosopher, scholar, and clergyman. . Professor of theology at the University of California, Davis. Founder, president, and executive director of "Center for the Study of Islam and the Middle East"\nAli Jadbabaie, systems theorist, network scientist, and the JR East Professor of Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nAli Jafari, professor of Computer and Information Technology at Purdue University, Director of the CyberLab at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)\nHamid Jafarkhani, leading communication theorist and Chancellor\'s Professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California, Irvine\nRamin Jahanbegloo, philosopher at University of Toronto\nFarnam Jahanian, computer scientist and the 10th president of Carnegie Mellon University\nAli Javan, physicist, inventor of gas laser; Professor Emeritus of Physics at MIT\nHassan Jawahery, physicist, former spokesman of the BaBar Collaboration, and professor of Physics at the University of Maryland\nMajd Kamalmaz, psychotherapist who has been illegally detained in Syria since 2017\nSepandar Kamvar, computer scientist, Stanford University\nMehran Kardar, physicist and professor of physics at MIT, and co-faculty at the New England Complex Systems Institute\nMorvarid Karimi, neurologist and medical researcher, specialist in neuroimaging of the pathophysiology of movement disorders. She was an assistant professor of Neurology in the Movement Disorders Section at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO\nAhmad Karimi-Hakkak, Iranist, scholar of modern Persian literature, and Professor and Founding Director of the Roshan Center for Persian Studies at the University of Maryland\nElham Kazemi, mathematics educator and educational psychologist; Geda and Phil Condit Professor in Math and Science Education in the College of Education of the University of Washington\nFiruz Kazemzadeh, historian of Russian and Iranian history, and Professor Emeritus of history at Yale University.\nHomayoon Kazerooni, roboticist & professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley; director of the Berkeley Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory\nFatemeh Keshavarz, scholar of Rumi and Farsi language & poetry, and poet in Persian and English;  Director & Chair of Roshan Institute for Persian Studies at the University of Maryland. Previously, was a professor of Persian Language and Comparative Literature at Washington University in Saint Louis\nAli Khademhosseini, Levi Knight Endowed Professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. Holds a professorship in bioengineering, radiology, chemical, and biomolecular engineering.\nLaleh Khalili, professor of Middle Eastern Politics at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. She also writes regularly for Iranian.com\nFarid Khavari, economist, specialist in economics, environment, oil, healthcare, & the Middle East.\nSamira Kiani, Health Systems Engineer at Arizona State University. Her work combines CRISPR technology with synthetic biology. She is a 2019 AAAS Leshner Fellow.\nFarinaz Koushanfar, professor and Henry Booker Faculty Scholar of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of California, San Diego\nHabib Levy, historian, specialist in the history of Jews in Iran; author of Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran: The Outset of the Diaspora.\nEsfandiar Maasoumi, econometrician and economist. He is a Distinguished Professor at Emory University and a fellow of the Royal Statistical Society\nMohammad Jafar Mahjoub, prominent Iranian scholar of Persian literature, essayist, translator, and professor. Moved to the U.S. in 1991 and taught at the University of California, Berkeley\nHoooman Majd, journalist, author, and commentator\nG. A. Mansoori, professor of chemical engineering at University of Illinois at Chicago\nAlireza Mashaghi, biophysicist and medical scientist at Leiden University and Harvard University\nBahram Mashhoon, general relativity physicist and professor of physics at the University of Missouri. Through his research works, he has given important contributions to general relativity, particularly to the gravitomagnetic clock effect. He is also active in the field of non-local gravity\nDaron Acemoglu, economist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nViken Babikian, professor at Boston University School of Medicine\nPeter Balakian, professor of Humanities at Colgate University\nPaul Boghossian, professor of philosophy at New York University\nPeter Boghossian, professor of philosophy at Portland State University\nAram Chobanian, Dean of Boston University School of Medicine\nHarry Daghlian, academic scientist\nRichard Dekmejian, professor at University of Southern California\nJames Der Derian, Watson Institute professor of International Studies and Political Science at Brown University\nEdward Goljan, professor of Pathology at Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences\nHrach Gregorian, writer and teacher on international conflict management and post-conflict peace building\nVartan Gregorian, former President of Brown University and current President of the Carnegie Corporation\nMarjorie Housepian Dobkin (1922–2013), professor emerita of English at Barnard College.\nRichard G. Hovannisian, professor of Armenian History at UCLA\nRaffi Indjejikian, professor of accounting at University of Michigan\nJoseph Albert Kechichian, author\nMark Krikorian, executive director of Center for Immigration Studies\nRobert Mehrabian, President of Carnegie Mellon\nGevork Minaskanian, professor of organic chemistry at Virginia Commonwealth University\nJosh Pahigian, professor of global humanities at the University of New England\nGeorge Piranian, professor of mathematics at the University of Michigan\nBarbara Sahakian, professor of Clinical Neuropsychology at University of Cambridge\nMark Saroyan, professor of Soviet studies at Harvard and UC Berkeley\nRashid Massumi, cardiologist and clinical professor, best known for his pioneering research in the field of electrophysiology. He was also known for bringing modern cardiology to Iran, and for being the cardiologist to the last Shah of Iran and, until 1980, Ayatollah Khomeini\nNoah McKay (born Nasser Talebzadeh Ordoubadi), physician and author of Wellness at Warp Speed\nRobert Mehrabian, material scientist, former president of Carnegie Mellon University, and chair, president, and CEO of Teledyne Technologies\nHoura Merrikh, microbiologist and a full professor at Vanderbilt University\nAbbas Milani, Director of Iranian Studies Program at Stanford University; research fellow & co-director of the "Iran Democracy Project" at Stanford\'s Hoover Institution\nFarzaneh Milani, professor of Persian Literature & Women\'s Studies at the University of Virginia, and the Chair of the Department of Middle Eastern and South Asian Languages & Cultures.\nMohsen Milani, foreign policy analyst,   and professor of politics at the University of South Florida\nAbbas Mirakhor, economist; former executive director and dean of board of the International Monetary Fund (INF);  Distinguished Scholar and chair in Islamic Finance at Malaysia\'s INCEIF (International Centre for Education in Islamic Finance)\nMaryam Mirzakhani, Stanford University professor; first female winner of the Fields Medal\nAfshin Molavi, author and expert on global geo-political risk and geo-economics, particularly the Middle East and Asia.\nJasmin Moghbeli, NASA astronaut candidate of the class of 2017\nMehryar Mohri, professor of computer science at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University. Specialist in machine learning, automata theory and algorithms, speech recognition and natural language processing\nParviz Moin, fluid dynamicist, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Stanford University. 2011 inductee to the United States National Academy of Sciences\nMohsen Mostafavi, architect and educator, Dean and Alexander and Victoria Wiley Professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Design\nFarzad Mostashari, internal medicine physician, former national coordinator for health information technology at U.S. Department of Health and Human Services\nHossein Khan Motamed, surgeon, founder of the Motamed Hospital in Tehran, Iran, and personal physician of Mohammad Reza Shah.\nNegar Mottahedeh, cultural critic and film theorist\nRoy Mottahedeh, Gurney Professor of History, Emeritus at Harvard University, specialist in pre-modern social and intellectual history of the Islamic Middle East. Former director of Harvard\'s Center for Middle Eastern Studies (1987–1990), and inaugural director of Harvard\'s Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Islamic Studies Program (2005–2011)\nHamid Mowlana, Professor Emeritus of International Relations and founding director of the Division of International Communication at the School of International Service at American University. In 2003, he was honored as a "Chehrehaye Mandegar" (Eternal One) by Iranian universities and academies.\nEden Naby, Iranian-Assyrian cultural historian of Central Asia and the Middle East, who is notable for her publications, research, and preservation work on Assyrian culture and history\nFirouz Naderi, former NASA director of Mars project. Has also served in other various technical and executive positions at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.\nHamid Naficy, cholar of cultural studies of diaspora, exile, & postcolonial cinemas and media, and of Iranian & Middle Eastern cinemas.  Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor in Communication at Northwestern University .\nPaul M. Naghdi, professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. Specialist in continuum mechanics\nMajid M. Naini (مجید ناینی), Rumi scholar, computer scientist, former professor at University of Pennsylvania,  writer on poetry, science, technology, and mysticism\nKayvan Najarian, associate professor of computer science, Virginia Commonwealth University\nSeyyed Hossein Nasr, professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University; prominent Islamic philosopher\nVali Nasr, author and scholar on the Middle East and Islamic world; Served as Dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Washington D.C.\nAngella Nazarian (née Angella Maddahi), former professor of psychology at Mount St. Mary\'s University, California State University, Long Beach & the Los Angeles Valley College.  Co-founder of Looking Beyond\nCamran Nezhat, laparoscopic surgeon and director of Stanford Endoscopy Center for Training & Technology, Stanford University\nKathy Niakan, human developmental and stem cell biologist. In 2016, she became the first scientist in the world to gain regulatory approval to edit the genomes of human embryos for research.\nReza Olfati-Saber, roboticist and Assistant Professor of Engineering at Dartmouth College\nKaveh Pahlavan, Professor of Computer and Electrical Engineering, professor of computer science, and director of the Center for Wireless Information Network Studies (CWINS) at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute\nFirouz Partovi, physicist; founder and former chairman of the Faculty of Physics at the Sharif University of Technology. He has also taught at MIT and Harvard University.\nMassoud Pedram, computer engineer known for his research in green computing, power optimization (EDA), low power electronics and design, and electronic design automation.\nGholam A. Peyman, ophthalmologist, retina surgeon, and inventor of LASIK eye surgery\nNader Pourmand, professor of biomolecular engineering at the Baskin School of Engineering\nAli R. Rabi, scholar at the Center for International Development and Conflict Management at University of Maryland, College Park;  founding chair of the Middle Eastern Citizens Assembly; Initiated the International University of Iran in 2001.\nSamuel Rahbar, biomedical scientist, discovered the linkage between HbA1C and diabetes\nHazhir Rahmandad, engineer and expert in dynamic modeling and system dynamics. Associate Professor in the System Dynamics group at the MIT Sloan School of Management.\nYahya Rahmat-Samii, professor and the Northrop Grumman Chair in Electromagnetics at Electrical Engineering Department at UCLA\nBehzad Razavi, professor of electrical engineering and director of the Communications Circuit Laboratory at the University of California, Los Angeles. y\nManijeh Razeghi, Walter P. Murphy Professor & Director of the Center for Quantum Devices at Northwestern University, pioneer in semiconductors and optoelectronic devices.\nZabihollah Rezaee, accountant, Thompson-Hill Chair of Excellence and professor of accounting at the University of Memphis\nSakineh (Simin) M. Redjali, psychologist and author. She was the first female professor at the National University of Iran\nDarius Rejali, professor of political science at Reed College and scholar specialized in the study of torture. He has served on the board of the Human Rights Review since 2000.\nNouriel Roubini, one of the leading economists of our age; professor of economics at the Stern School of Business, New York University; chairman of RGE Monitor\nPardis Sabeti, world-renowned computational geneticist, assistant professor, Center for Systems Biology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University\nAhmad Sadri, sociologist and professor of Sociology and Anthropology at Lake Forest College, and the James P. Gorter Professor of Islamic World Studies since 2007. Active in the reform movement in Iran.\nMahmoud Sadri, professor of Sociology at the Federation of North Texas Area Universities. His major interests are in religious, cultural & theoretical sociology, reform Islam and interfaith dialogue.\nOmid Safi, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern studies at Duke University, Director of the Duke Islamic Studies Center, and columnist for On Being. Scholar of Islamic mysticism (Sufism)\nMehran Sahami, professor and the Associate Chair for Education in the Computer Science department at Stanford University.  Robert and Ruth Halperin University Fellow in Undergraduate Education at Stanford.\nMuhammad Sahimi, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science and current NIOC chair in petroleum engineering at USC\nDjavad Salehi-Isfahani, professor of economics at Virginia Tech, and visiting fellow at the Middle East Youth Initiative at the Wolfensohn Center for Development at the Brookings Institution. His expertise is on demographic & energy economics and the economics of Iran & the larger Middle East\nDavid B. Samadi, vice Chairman of the Department of Urology and Chief of Robotics and Minimally Invasive Surgery at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai\nEliz Sanasarian, professor of political science at the University of Southern California. Specialist ethnic politics and feminism, particularly regarding the Middle East and Iran\nKamal Sarabandi, Professor of Engineering at the University of Michigan\nHomayoun Seraji, Senior Research Scientist at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Caltech, former professor at Sharif University of Technology. Works in the field of robotics and space exploration.\nCyrus Shahabi, chair of the Computer Science Department, University of Southern California\nMohammad Shahidehpour, Carl Bodine Distinguished Professor and chairman in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at Illinois Institute of Technology\nGhavam Shahidi, electrical engineer and IBM Fellow, Director of Silicon Technology at IBM\'s Watson\'s Laboratory\nAlireza Shapour Shahbazi, lecturer in Achaemenid archeology and Iranology at Harvard University, full professor of history in Eastern Oregon University\nManuchehr Shahrokhi, professor of Global Business-Finance at California State University; Founding Editor of Global Finance Journal; executive director of Global Finance Association\nFatemeh Shams, contemporary Persian poet, and Assistant Professor of Persian literature at the University of Pennsylvania\nShahrokh Shariat, urologist; professor & chairman of the Department of Urology of the Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; adjunct professor of urology & medical oncology at Weill Cornell Medical Center & at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.\nNasser Sharify, Distinguished Professor and Dean Emeritus of the School of Information and Library Science at Pratt Institute\nSiamack A. Shirazi, scientist, professor and graduate coordinator of the Mechanical Engineering department at the University of Tulsa.\nHamid Shirvani, architecture scholar, former president of Briar Cliff University, former chancellor of North Dakota University System.\nRahmat Shoureshi, former President of Portland State University; former president, Provost & professor at New York Institute of Technology\nSam Sofer, scientist who specializes in biological processes and bioreactor design.\nSaba Soomekh, professor of religious studies, women\'s studies, and Middle Eastern history at UCLA and Loyola Marymount University. Author of books and articles on contemporary and historical Iranian Jewish culture\nShahrbanou Tadjbakhsh, university lecturer at Sciences Po, researcher, and United Nations consultant in peacekeeping, conflict resolution, counter-terrorism and radicalization. Best known for her work in "Human Security"\nKian Tajbakhsh, social scientist, urban planner, and professor of Urban Planning at Columbia University. One of the four Iranian-Americans falsely convicted and detained by the Iranian government in May 2007\nRay Takeyh, Middle East scholar and Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations\nKamran Talattof, Persian literature and Iranian culture; Director of Persian Program University of Arizona\nVahid Tarokh, professor of electrical and computer engineering, Bass Connections Professor, a professor of mathematics (secondary), and computer science (secondary) at Duke University\nNader Tehrani, designer, Dean of the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture at Cooper Union, and former professor of architecture and department chair at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning.\nCumrun Vafa, string theorist and Donner Professor of Science at Harvard University. Recipient of the 2008 Dirac Medal and the 2016 Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics.\nSaba Valadkhan, biomedical scientist, Assistant professor and RNA researcher at Case Western Reserve University, recipient of Young Scientist Award in 2005 for the mechanism of spliceosomes\nRoxanne Varzi, associate professor of anthropology and film and media studies at the University of California, Irvine, documentary filmmaker, and writer\nEhsan Yarshater, founder and Editor in Chief of Encyclopaedia Iranica, first full-time professor at a U.S. university since World War II; Hagop Kevorkian Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies; Director of the Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University;\nSeema Yasmin, Director of the Stanford Health Communication Initiative at Stanford University\nMohammad Yeganeh, economist, former Governor of the Central Bank of Iran (1973–1975), a professor of economics at Columbia University (1980–1985)\nHouman Younessi, researcher and educator in informatics, computer science, and molecular biology. Former research professor at the University of Connecticut;\nLotfi A. Zadeh, mathematician, computer scientist, and a professor emeritus of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley; father of fuzzy logic and fuzzy sets\nNorm Zada, former adjunct mathematics professor,  and founder of Perfect 10; son of Lotfi A. Zadeh\nReza Zadeh, computer scientist at Stanford University\nIraj Zandi, Emeritus Professor of Systems, University of Pennsylvania\nMark Zandi, chief economist of Moody\'s Analytics,\nEdip Yüksel, Islamic philosopher and intellectual, considered one of the prime figures in the modern Islamic reform and Quranism movements.\nJohn Shahidi, software developer and manager, brother of Sam\nSam Shahidi, software developer and manager, brother of John\nArif Dirlik\nDaron Acemoglu, economist, of Armenian descent\nTaner Akçam, University of Minnesota professor, historian specializing in the Armenian genocide\nİlhan Aksay, professor, Princeton University\nÖzalp Babaoğlu, professor of computer science at University of Bologna\nCiğdem Balım\nAsım Orhan Barut, University of Colorado-Boulder physicist\nMine Çetinkaya-Rundel, associate professor of the practice in statistics at Duke University\nFaruk Gül, professor of economics, Princeton University\nFeza Gürsey, mathematician and physicist\nM. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University\nAlp Ikizler, nephrologist, holder of the Catherine McLaughlin Hakim chair in Medicine at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine\nMerve Kavakçı, George Washington University Professor and former Fazilet Party Parliamentarian exiled from Turkey for violating the Public Head Scarf Ban\nHasan Özbekhan\nMehmet Toner, cryobiologist, professor of surgery at the Harvard Medical School, and professor of biomedical engineering at the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology\nTurgay Üzer, Georgia Institute of Technology Physicist\nVamık Volkan, Princeton University Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry\nNur Yalman, octolingual Harvard University Professor of Social Anthropology and Middle Eastern Studies\nOsman Yaşar, professor and chair of the computational science department at State University of New York College at Brockport\nK. Aslıhan Yener, University of Chicago archaeologist who uncovered a new source of Bronze Age Anatolian tin mines\n\nBusiness\nThe most famous ones include\nMohamed Atalla, engineer, inventor of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), most frequently manufactured device in history. Pioneer in silicon semiconductors and security systems, founder of Atalla Corporation\n Bob Miner, co-founder of Oracle Corporation and the producer of its relational database management system\n Hamid Akhavan, CEO of Siemens Enterprise Communications\n Melih Abdulhayoğlu, founder, CEO, and president of Comodo Group\n Joseph Lubin (entrepreneur), Canadian-American founder of blockchain software technology company ConsenSys, co-founder of Ethereum\n Sina Tamaddon, Senior Vice President of Applications for Apple Computer\nSam Gores, founder of talent agency Paradigm Agency; on the Forbes list of billionaires (LebanesePalestinian)\nNajeeb Halaby, former head of Federal Aviation Administration and CEO of Pan-American Airlines, and father of Queen Noor of Jordan (Lebanese-Syrian father)\nMario Kassar, formerly headed Carolco Pictures (Lebanese)\nJohn J. Mack, CEO of investment bank Morgan Stanley (Lebanese parents)\n\nLiterature\nKhalil Gibran, writer, poet, and member of the New York Pen League; the third-best-selling poet of all time (Lebanese)\nWilliam Peter Blatty, American writer best known for his 1971 horror novel The Exorcist (Lebanese)\nLaila Lalami, Pulitzer Prize-nominated novelist, journalist, essayist, and professor (Moroccan) \nMikhail Naimy, Nobel Prize-nominated author; member of the New York Pen League; well-known works include The Book of Mirdad (Lebanese)\nEdward Said, literary theorist, thinker, and the founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies (Palestinian)\nAmeen Rihani, "father of Arab American literature," member of the New York Pen League and author of The Book of Khalid, the first Arab American novel in English; also an ambassador\nMona Simpson, author of Anywhere but Here (Syrian father)\nStephen Adly Guirgis, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright (Egyptian father)\nElmaz Abinader, poet, playwright, memoirist, writer (Lebanese)\nDiana Abu-Jaber, novelist and professor, author of Arabian Jazz and Crescent (Jordanian)\nElia Abu Madi, poet, publisher and member of the New York Pen League (Lebanese)\nEtel Adnan, poet, essayist, and visual artist (Syrian father)\nCatherine Filloux, French-Algerian-American playwright\nSuheir Hammad, poet, playwright, artist, Tony Award winner, 2003 (Russel Simmons Presents Def Poetry Jam on Broadway)\nSamuel John Hazo, State Poet of Pennsylvania\nLawrence Joseph, poet\nLisa Suhair Majaj, poet and literary scholar\nJack Marshall, poet and author (Iraqi father/Syrian mother)\nKhaled Mattawa, poet, recipient of an Academy of American Poets award\nClaire Messud, author, Algerian\nNaomi Shihab Nye, poet\nAbraham Rihbany, writer on politics and religion\n Steven Salaita, expert on comparative literature and post-colonialism, writer, activist (Palestinian/Jordanian)\n Colet Abedi, young adult novelist and television producer\n Salar Abdoh, novelist and essayist. Current director of the graduate program in creative writing at the City College of New York.\n Kaveh Akbar, poet and scholar\n Laleh Bakhtiar, writer and scholar\n Fereydoon Batmanghelidj, writer of books on health and wellness. \n Najmieh Batmanglij, acclaimed chef and cookbook author\n William D. S. Daniel, Iranian-Assyrian author, poet, and musician\n Parvin Darabi, writer and women\'s rights activist. Best known for book Rage Against the Veil\n Jasmin Darznik, author of The Good Daughter: A Memoir of My Mother\'s Hidden Life and Song of a Captive Bird\n Firoozeh Dumas, author of Funny in Farsi: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America\n FM-2030, author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist; author of Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World (1989)\n Sara Farizan, writer of young adult literature. Best known for novel, If You Could Be Mine (2013)\n Ezzat Goushegir, fiction writer & playwright\n Roya Hakakian, writer, poet, and journalist\n Hakob Karapents, novelist and short story writer whose works were written in both Armenian and English. Settled in the U.S. in 1947.\n Laleh Khadivi, novelist and documentary filmmaker\n Porochista Khakpour, novelist, essayist, and writer\n Tahereh Mafi, novelist of young adult fiction\n Mahtob Mahmoody, author of autobiographical memoir My Name is Mahtob and daughter of Betty Mahmoody, the author of Not Without My Daughter\n Faranak Margolese, writer, best known as author of Off the Derech\n Marsha Mehran, novelist, author of international bestsellers Pomegranate Soup (2005) and Rosewater and Soda Bread (2008)\n Shokooh Mirzadegi, novelist and poet, who worked for Ferdowsi magazine and Kayhān daily in the late 1960s in Iran. \n Azadeh Moaveni, author of Lipstick Jihad and co-author of Iran Awakening with Shirin Ebadi, and reporter for Time magazine on Iran and the Middle East\n Melody Moezzi, writer, attorney, and author of Haldol and Hyacinths: A Bipolar Life and War on Error: Real Stories of American Muslims.\n Ottessa Moshfegh, writer, author of Eileen\n Farnoosh Moshiri, novelist, playwright, and librettist. Professor of creative writing and literature at the University of Houston-Downtown\n Dora Levy Mossanen, author of historical fiction\n Azar Nafisi, writer, best known for Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books\n Gina Nahai, author of Cry of the Peacock, Moonlight on the Avenue of Faith, and Caspian Rain\n Steven Naifeh, Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer of Jackson Pollock and Vincent van Gogh, co-author of 18 other books with Gregory White Smith, businessman, and artist\n Dina Nayeri, novelist, essayist, and short story writer. Author of A Teaspoon of Earth and Sea and Refuge\n Abdi Nazemian, author and screenwriter. Best known for The Walk-In Closet\n Ghazal Omid, nonfiction political writer, nonfiction children\'s book writer, speaker, NGO executive\n Shahrnoosh Parsipour, writer\n Susan Atefat Peckham, poet\n Saïd Sayrafiezadeh, memoirist, playwright, and fiction writer\n Dalia Sofer, writer, best known for The Septembers of Shiraz\n Neda Soltani, writer of My Stolen Face and political exile\n Mahbod Seraji, writer, best known for Rooftops of Tehran\n Mahmoud Seraji, a.k.a. "M.S. Shahed," poet best known for his trilogy Mazamir Eshgh (مزامیر عشق). Father of Mahbod Seraji\n Solmaz Sharif, poet, known for her debut poetry collection, Look. Currently a Jones Lecturer at Stanford University\n\n Andrew David Urshan, evangelist and author. Known as the "Persian Evangelist", ks\n Sholeh Wolpe, poet, editor and literary translator\n Walter Abish, novelist, poet, and short story writer\n Herman Wouk, novelist and non-fiction writer\n Anzia Yezierska, novelist\n Leonard S. Zinberg (Ed Lacy), novelist\n\nPolitics\n Mark Esper, 27th Secretary of Defense (2019—2020) (Lebanese)\n Alex Azar, Secretary of Human Health and Service (2018—2021) (Lebanese)\n William Barr, Attorney General (2019—2021)\n Steven Mnuchin, 77th secretary of Treasury (2017—2021)\nJames Abdnor, U.S. Senator (R-South Dakota) (1981–1987)\nJohn Abizaid, retired general (Lebanese) \nJames Abourezk, U.S. Senator (D-South Dakota) (1973–1979) (Lebanese ancestry)\nSpencer Abraham, U.S. Secretary of Energy (2001–2005) and U.S. Senator (R-Mich.) Secretary of Energy under Bush (1995–2001) (Lebanese ancestry)\nJustin Amash, U.S. Representative (R-Michigan) (2011–2021), Palestinian and Syrian descent\nVictor G. Atiyeh, Governor of Oregon (R) (1979–1987) (Syrian)\nJohn Baldacci, Governor of Maine (D) (2003–2011) (Lebanese mother)\nRosemary Barkett, U.S. federal judge and the first woman Supreme Court Justice and Chief Justice for the state of Florida (Syrian)\nCharles Boustany, U.S. Representative from Louisiana; cousin of Victoria Reggie Kennedy (Lebanese)\nPat Danner, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Mo.) (1993–2001)\nBrigitte Gabriel, pro-Israel activist and founder of the American Congress For Truth (Lebanese)\nPhilip Charles Habib, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs and Special Envoy to Ronald Reagan (Lebanese)\nLisa Halaby (a.k.a. Queen Noor), Queen-consort of Jordan and wife of King Hussein of Jordan (father is of Syrian descent)\nDarrell Issa, U.S. Congressman (R-California) (2001–) (Lebanese father)\nJoe Jamail, Renown American trial lawyer and billionaire, also known as the "King of Torts"  (Lebanese)\nJames Jabara, colonel and Korean War flying ace (Lebanese)\nChris John, U.S. Congressman (D-Louisiana) (1997–2005) (Lebanese ancestry)\nGeorge Joulwan, retired general, former NATO commander-in-chief (Lebanese)\nGeorge Kasem, U.S. Congressman (D-California) (1959-1961)\nAbraham Kazen, U.S. Congressman (D-Texas) (1967–1985) (Lebanese ancestry)\nJill Kelley, global advocate and American socialite (Lebanese)\nVictoria Reggie Kennedy, attorney and widow of late Senator Ted Kennedy (Lebanese)\nMuna Khalif, fashion designer and MP in the Federal Parliament of Somalia (Somali)\nJohnny Khamis, Councilmember from San Jose (Lebanese)\nRay LaHood, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (1995–2009), U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2009–2013) (Lebanese and Jordanian ancestry)\nDarin LaHood, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (2015–), son of Ray Lahood\nGeorge J. Mitchell, U.S. Senator (D-Maine) (1980–1995) United States of America special envoy to the Middle East under the Obama administration, U.S. senator from Maine, Senate Majority Leader (Lebanese mother)\nMohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, President of Somaila (2017-) former Prime Minister of Somalia (Somali descent)\nRalph Nader, politician and consumer advocate, author, lecturer, and attorney, candidate for US Presidency \nJimmy Naifeh, Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives (D) (Lebanese ancestry)\nMary Rose Oakar, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Ohio) (1977–1993)\nAbdisalam Omer, Foreign Minister of Somalia (Somali descent)\nIlhan Omar,  U.S. Congresswoman (D-Minnesota) (2019-), DFL Party member of the Minnesota House of Representatives (Somali/Yemeni) \nJeanine Pirro, former Westchester County District Attorney and New York Republican attorney general candidate (Lebanese parents)\nDina Powell, U.S. Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategy (2017-2018) (Egyptian)\nNick Rahall, U.S. Congressman (D-West Virginia) (1977–2015) (Lebanese ancestry)\nSelwa Roosevelt (Lebanese), former Chief of Protocol of the United States and wife of the late Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr., grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt\n Zainab Salbi, co-founder and president of Women for Women International (Iraqi)\nDonna Shalala, U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (1993–2001) (Lebanese parents)\nChris Sununu, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (2017–), son of Governor John H. Sununu\nJohn E. Sununu, U.S. Senator (R-New Hampshire) (2003–2009) (father is of Lebanese and Palestinian ancestry)\nJohn H. Sununu, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (1983–1989) and Chief of Staff to George H.W. Bush (Lebanese and Palestinian ancestry)\nJames Zogby (Lebanese), founder and president of the Arab American Institute\nHady Amr, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Israeli-Palestinian Affairs and Press and Public Diplomacy (2021-), founding director of Brookings Doha Center (Lebanese father)\n Parry Aftab, Internet privacy and security lawyer, considered one of the founders of cyberlaw. Founder of the cybersafety organizations WiredSafety, StopCyberbullying and the consulting firm, WiredTrust\n Roozbeh Aliabadi, advisor and commentator on geopolitical risk and geoeconomics. Current partner at global affair practice at GGA in New York City, former Senior Advisor to the Department of Strategic Initiatives, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Iran\n Mahnaz Afkhami, women\'s rights activist who served in the Cabinet of Iran from 1976 to 1978; executive director of the Washington-based Foundation for Iranian Studies, and the founder and president of the Women\'s Learning Partnership (WLP)\n Goli Ameri, former Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Values and Diplomacy for the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, former U.S. public delegate to the United Nations General Assembly, and former Republican candidate for the United States House of Representatives from the 1st district of Oregon.\n Cyrus Amir-Mokri, former Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Institutions at the U.S. Treasury Department\n Jamshid Amouzegar, economist and politician who served as Prime Minister of Iran (1977–1978). Immigrated to U.S. in 1978\n Hushang Ansary, former Iranian Minister of Economic Affairs and Finance, former Ambassador of Iran to the United States (1967–1969) and Chairman of National Finance Committee of Bush-Cheney 2004 campaign.\n Gholam Reza Azhari, military leader and Prime Minister of Iran (1978–1979). Immigrated to the U.S. in 1979\n Pantea Beigi, human rights advocate, known for her media appearances commenting on the human rights conditions in Iran in the wake of the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests. She has served as an AmeriCorps member for the PeaceJam foundation, notably working with Dr. Shirin Ebadi in her efforts to address social and economic injustices of the youth in Iran\n Michael Benjamin, 1996 Republican candidate for the U.S. House from the 8th district of New York, and 2004 United States Senate Republican Primary candidate from New York\n Makan Delrahim, United States Assistant Attorney General for the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division under the Trump Administration\n Jimmy Delshad, former Mayor of Beverly Hills, California (2007–2008, 2010–2011),  first Iranian-born mayor of an American city\n Eugene Dooman, counselor at the United States Embassy in Tokyo during the period of critical negotiations between the U.S. and Japan before World War II\n Abdullah Entezam, Iranian diplomat, Iranian ambassador to France (1927) and to West Germany, secretary of the Iranian embassy in the United States. Father of Hume Horan\n Anna Eshoo, U.S. Representative of California\'s 18th congressional district\n Anna Eskamani, member of the Florida House of Representatives.\n Abbas Farzanegan, former governor of the state of Esfahan, communications minister and diplomat during Mohammad Reza Pahlavi\'s reign. Key figure in facilitation of the 1953 Iranian coup d\'état. Immigrated to the U.S. in 1975\n Shireen Ghorbani, at-large member of the Salt Lake County Council, representing 1.1 million residents\n Rostam Giv, 3rd representative of Iranian Zoroastrians in Iranian parliament, senator of the Iranian Senate, and philanthropist to the Zoroastrian community in Iran, then United States, and the world. Immigrated to the U.S. in 1978.\n Ferial Govashiri, served as the Personal Secretary to U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House (2014-2017). Currently is the Chief of Staff to the Chief Content Officer of Netflix\n Hrach Gregorian, political consultant, educator, and writer. His work has taken him internationally as a consultant on international conflict management, and post-conflict peacebuilding\n Cyrus Habib, 16th Lieutenant Governor of Washington, and President of the Washington State Senate. First and so far only Iranian-American elected to state office\n Kamal Habibollahi, last Commander of the Imperian Iranian Navy until the Iranian Revolution and the last CNO commander of the Pahlavi dynasty. Also held several minister positions under the military government of Gholam Reza Azhari in 1978. Immigrated to the U.S. after the Iranian Revolution\n Shamsi Hekmat, women\'s rights activist who pioneered reforms in women\'s status in Iran. Founded the first Iranian Jewish women\'s organization (Sazman Banovan Yahud i Iran) in 1947. After her migration to the U.S., she established the Iranian Jewish Women\'s Organization of Southern California s.\n Shahram Homayoun, political dissident of the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and owner of "Channel One," a Persian satellite TV station based in Los Angeles that broadcasts into Iran daily\n Hume Horan, diplomat and former U.S. ambassador to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and the Ivory Coast. Son of Abdullah Entezam\n Fereydoon Hoveyda, former Iranian ambassador to the United Nations (1971–1979). Since his exile to the U.S., senior fellow and member of the executive committee of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy (NCAFP)\n Shaban Jafari, Iranian political figure, practitioner of Pahlevani and zoorkhaneh rituals. Key figure in the facilitation of the 1953 Iranian coup d\'état. Exiled to the United States soon after the 1979 revolution\n Anna Kaplan (née Anna Monahemi), first Iranian-American elected to New York State Senate\n Zahra Karinshak, attorney and politician.\n Mehdi Khalaji, political analyst, writer, and scholar of Shia Islamic studies. Senior research fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, a D.C.-based foreign policy think tank. He has frequently contributed to journalistic outlets such as BBC, The Guardian, The Washington Post, and The New York Times\n Alan Khazei, social entrepreneur; founder and CEO of "Be The Change, Inc",  dedicated to building coalitions among non-profit organizations and citizen . Co-founder and former CEO of City Year, an AmeriCorps national service program\n Bijan Kian, businessman, member of the board of directors of the Export–Import Bank of the United States, partner of Michael Flynn in the Flynn Intel Group, and worked with the Trump administration transition team in regards to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence\n Paul Larudee, political activist and a major figure in the pro-Palestinian movement. He is involved in the International Solidarity Movement and the founder of the Free Gaza Movement and the Free Palestine Movement\n Ahmad Madani, former Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy (1979), governor of the Khuzestan province, and candidate of the first Iranian presidential election. After his exile to the United States in 1980, he was the chairman of the National Front outside of Iran.\n Cyrus Mehri, attorney and partner at Mehri & Skalet. Best known for helping establish the National Football League\'s (NFL) Rooney Rule\n Mariam Memarsadeghi, democracy and human rights advocate\n Ross Mirkarimi, former member of San Francisco City Council and former San Francisco Sheriff. Co-founder of the Green Party of California\n Mohammad Hassan Mirza II, last Crown Prince of Iran from the rule of the Qajar dynasty & heir apparent to the Qajar Sun Throne. Currently lives in Dallas, Texas.\n Shayan Modarres, civil right activist known for his representation of the family of Trayvon Martin, and a 2014 Democratic primary candidate for the U.S. House from the 10th district of Florida\n Esha Momeni, women\'s rights activist and a member of the One Million Signatures campaign\n David Nahai, environmental attorney, political activist, former head of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power\n Adrin Nazarian, Member of the California State Assembly from the 46th district. First Iranian-American elected to the California State Legislature\n John J. Nimrod, minority rights activist and Illinois state senator of District 4 (1973-1983) of Iranian-Assyrian descent; notable for his promotion of Assyrian causes and for the rights of other under-represented minority groups throughout the world, such as Uyghurs and Tibetans\n Alex Nowrasteh, immigration policy analyst currently at the Center for Global Liberty and Prosperity at the Cato Institute, and previously at the Competitive Enterprise Institute. He is a national expert on immigration policy\n Vali Nasr, Shia scholar and poetical scientist. Senior Fellow in foreign policy at the Brookings Institution\n Prince Abdul Reza Pahlavi, son of Reza Shah and half-brother of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Immigrated to the U.S. with other relatives immediately prior to the Islamic revolution of 1979\n Prince Ali-Reza Pahlavi, younger son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. He was second in the order of succession to the Iranian throne prior to the Iranian revolution. \n Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, twin sister of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Considered to be the "power behind her brother" and instrumental in the 1953 coup d\'état which led him taking the throne. Served her brother as a Palace advisor and a strong advocate for women\'s rights.\n Farah Pahlavi, widow of Mohammad Reza Shah and former shahbanu (empress) of Iran\n Princess Farahnaz Pahlavi, eldest daughter of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. Currently resides in New York City\n Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran, last heir apparent of the Imperial State of Iran and current head of the exiled House of Pahlavi. Oldest son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. Founder and former leader of the National Council of Iran. Currently resides in Bethesda, Maryland. \n Shams Pahlavi, elder sister of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Former president of the Red Lion and Sun Society. Exiled to the United States after the 1979 revolution\n Yasmine Pahlavi, lawyer and wife of Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran. Co-founder and former director of the Foundation for the Children of Iran. Currently resides in Bethesda, Maryland\n Mehrdad Pahlbod, Iranian royal and first culture minister of Iran (1964-1968). He was the second husband of Princess Shams Pahlavi. Immigrated to the U.S. and resided in Los Angeles after the 1979 revolution\n Trita Parsi, founder and current president of the National Iranian American Council. He regularly writes articles and appears on TV to comment on foreign policy\n Noraladin Pirmoazzen, Iranian politician who served as a member of the 6th and 7th Islamic Consultative Assembly from the electorate of Ardabil, Nir, Namin and Sareyn.  Immigrated to the U.S. in 2008.\n Azita Raji, former United States Ambassador to Sweden appointed by Barack Obama\n Farajollah Rasaei, Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy (1961-1972), the most Senior Naval Commander of the Iranian Navy. Exiled to the U.S. after the 1979 revolution\n Parviz Sabeti, former SAVAK deputy under the regime of Mohammad Reza Shah. One of the most powerful men in the last two decades of the Pahlavi regime. Exiled to the U.S. in 1979.\n Ahsha Safaí, elected member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing Supervisorial District 11\n David Safavian, disgraced former Chief of Staff of the United States General Services Administration\n Karim Sanjabi, Iranian politician of the National Front of Iran. Settled in the U.S. after the 1979 revolution\n Hajj Sayyah, famous world traveler and political activist. He is the first Iranian to obtain an American citizenship. Played a major role in the Constitutional Revolution of 1906 in Persia.\n Mohsen Sazegara, pro-democracy political activist and journalist. He held several offices in the government of Mir-Hossein Mousavi. His reformist policies clashed with the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, eventually resulting in his arrest and later exile. He currently resides in the U.S.\n Farhad Sepahbody, former Ambassador of Iran to Morocco (1976-1979). Exiled to the U.S. after the Iranian Revolution\n Soraya Serajeddini, Iranian-Kurdish human rights activist. Former Executive Vice President of the Kurdish National Congress of North America. \n Mehdi Shahbazi, political activist and businessman. He was known for protest against major oil companies at the grounds of his Shell Oil gas station franchises\n Azadeh N. Shahshahani, human rights attorney\n Ali Shakeri, activist and businessman. Serves on the Community Advisory Board of the Center for Citizen Peacebuilding at the University of California, Irvine, and is the founder and active member of Ettehade Jomhourikhahan-e Iran (EJI), which advocates for a democratic and secular republic in Iran. He was one of the four Iranian-Americans detained by the Iranian government in May 2007.\n Jafar Sharif-Emami, former prime minister of Iran (1960-1961, 1978–1979), former president of the Iranian Senate (1964-1978), and former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iran (1960). Exiled to the U.S. in the wake of the Iranian Revolution\n Faryar Shirzad, former Deputy National Security Advisor and White House Deputy Assistant for International Economic Affairs to President George W. Bush\n Yasmine Taeb, human rights attorney and Democratic National Committee official. She is a senior policy counsel at the Center for Victims of Torture\n Ramin Toloui, Assistant Secretary for International Finance, United States Department of the Treasury\n Bob Yousefian, former mayor of Glendale, California\n Steven Derounian, Republican, New York (1953–1965)\n Adam Benjamin, Jr., Democrat, Indiana (1977–1982)\n Chip Pashayan, Republican, California (1979–1991)\n Anna Eshoo, Democrat, California (1993—2013)\n John E. Sweeney, Republican, New York (1999–2007)\n Jackie Speier, Democrat, California (2008—)\n Anthony Brindisi, Democrat, New York (2019—2021)\nRobert Mardian, United States Assistant Attorney General (1970–1972)\nGeorge Deukmejian, Republican, California (1983–1991)\nGeorge Deukmejian, California Attorney General (1979–1983)\nJulia Tashjian, Secretary of the State of Connecticut (1983–1991)\nDickran Tevrizian, United States District Court for the Central District of California (1985–2005)\n Marvin R. Baxter, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California (1991—2015)\n Brad Avakian, Commissioner of the Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industries (2008—2019)\nRachel Kaprielian, Massachusetts Registrar of Motor Vehicles (2008–2014); Massachusetts Secretary of Labor and Worforce Development\n George Deukmejian, 35th Governor of California, 27th Attorney General of California, Member of the California State Senate (1967-1979) and State Assembly (1963-1967)\n Joe Simitian, Member of the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors (2013-)\n\nSee also\n Middle East\n Greater Middle East\n Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nMaghbouleh, Neda (2017). The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.\n\n \n \nMiddle Eastern people\nMiddle Eastern diaspora\nEthnic groups in the United States'},
 {'id': '18879',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology',
  'title': 'Massachusetts Institute of Technology',
  'text': 'The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has since played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, ranking it among the top academic institutions in the world. \n\nFounded in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering. The institute has an urban campus that extends more than a mile (1.6 km) alongside the Charles River, and encompasses a number of major off-campus facilities such as the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, the Bates Center, and the Haystack Observatory, as well as affiliated laboratories such as the Broad and Whitehead Institutes. \n\n, 98 Nobel laureates, 26 Turing Award winners, and 8 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, 58 National Medal of Science recipients, 29 National Medals of Technology and Innovation recipients, 50 MacArthur Fellows, 80 Marshall Scholars, 41 astronauts, 16 Chief Scientists of the U.S. Air Force, and numerous heads of states have been affiliated with MIT. The institute also has a strong entrepreneurial culture and MIT alumni have founded or co-founded many notable companies. MIT is a member of the Association of American Universities (AAU) and has received more Sloan Research Fellowships than any other university in North America.\n\nHistory\n\nFoundation and vision \n\nIn 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a "Conservatory of Art and Science", but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed by William Barton Rogers, was signed by John Albion Andrew, the governor of Massachusetts, on April 10, 1861.\n\nRogers, a graduate of  William and Mary and professor at UVA, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. He did not wish to found a professional school, but a combination with elements of both professional and liberal education, proposing that:\n\nThe true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is, as I conceive, the teaching, not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts, which can be done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them, and along with this, a full and methodical review of all their leading processes and operations in connection with physical laws.\n\nThe Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories.\n\nEarly developments \n\nTwo days after MIT was chartered, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MIT\'s first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865. The new institute was founded as part of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act to fund institutions "to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes" and was a land-grant school. In 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from land sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay.\n\nMIT was informally called "Boston Tech". The institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, and the size of the student body increased to more than one thousand.\n\nThe curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership. During these "Boston Tech" years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president (and former MIT faculty) Charles W. Eliot\'s repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard College\'s Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard. In its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually, the MIT Corporation approved a formal agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students, and alumni. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme.\n\nIn 1916, the MIT administration and the MIT charter crossed the Charles River on the ceremonial barge Bucentaur built for the occasion, to signify MIT\'s move to a spacious new campus largely consisting of filled land on a  tract along the Cambridge side of the Charles River. The neoclassical "New Technology" campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious "Mr. Smith", starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of film production and processing, and founded Eastman Kodak. Between 1912 and 1920, Eastman donated $20 million ($ million in 2015 dollars) in cash and Kodak stock to MIT.\n\nCurricular reforms \nIn the 1930s, President Karl Taylor Compton and Vice-President (effectively Provost) Vannevar Bush emphasized the importance of pure sciences like physics and chemistry and reduced the vocational practice required in shops and drafting studios. The Compton reforms "renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering". Unlike Ivy League schools, MIT catered more to middle-class families, and depended more on tuition than on endowments or grants for its funding. The school was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934.\n\nStill, as late as 1949, the Lewis Committee lamented in its report on the state of education at MIT that "the Institute is widely conceived as basically a vocational school", a "partly unjustified" perception the committee sought to change. The report comprehensively reviewed the undergraduate curriculum, recommended offering a broader education, and warned against letting engineering and government-sponsored research detract from the sciences and humanities. The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and the MIT Sloan School of Management were formed in 1950 to compete with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering. Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics, management, political science, and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors and launching competitive graduate programs. The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences continued to develop under the successive terms of the more humanistically oriented presidents Howard W. Johnson and Jerome Wiesner between 1966 and 1980.\n\nDefense research \n\nMIT\'s involvement in military science surged during World War II. In 1941, Vannevar Bush was appointed head of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development and directed funding to only a select group of universities, including MIT. Engineers and scientists from across the country gathered at MIT\'s Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940 to assist the British military in developing microwave radar. The work done there significantly affected both the war and subsequent research in the area. Other defense projects included gyroscope-based and other complex control systems for gunsight, bombsight, and inertial navigation under Charles Stark Draper\'s Instrumentation Laboratory; the development of a digital computer for flight simulations under Project Whirlwind; and high-speed and high-altitude photography under Harold Edgerton. By the end of the war, MIT became the nation\'s largest wartime R&D contractor (attracting some criticism of Bush), employing nearly 4000 in the Radiation Laboratory alone and receiving in excess of $100 million ($ billion in 2015 dollars) before 1946. Work on defense projects continued even after then. Post-war government-sponsored research at MIT included SAGE and guidance systems for ballistic missiles and Project Apollo.\n\nThese activities affected MIT profoundly. A 1949 report noted the lack of "any great slackening in the pace of life at the Institute" to match the return to peacetime, remembering the "academic tranquility of the prewar years", though acknowledging the significant contributions of military research to the increased emphasis on graduate education and rapid growth of personnel and facilities. The faculty doubled and the graduate student body quintupled during the terms of Karl Taylor Compton, president of MIT between 1930 and 1948; James Rhyne Killian, president from 1948 to 1957; and Julius Adams Stratton, chancellor from 1952 to 1957, whose institution-building strategies shaped the expanding university. By the 1950s, MIT no longer simply benefited the industries with which it had worked for three decades, and it had developed closer working relationships with new patrons, philanthropic foundations and the federal government.\n\nIn late 1960s and early 1970s, student and faculty activists protested against the Vietnam War and MIT\'s defense research. In this period MIT\'s various departments were researching helicopters, smart bombs and counterinsurgency techniques for the war in Vietnam as well as guidance systems for nuclear missiles. The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded on March 4, 1969 during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research toward environmental and social problems. MIT ultimately divested itself from the Instrumentation Laboratory and moved all classified research off-campus to the MIT Lincoln Laboratory facility in 1973 in response to the protests. The student body, faculty, and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during what was a tumultuous time for many other universities. Johnson was seen to be highly successful in leading his institution to "greater strength and unity" after these times of turmoil. However six MIT students were sentenced to prison terms at this time and some former student leaders, such as Michael Albert and George Katsiaficas, are still indignant about MIT\'s role in military research and its suppression of these protests. (Richard Leacock\'s film, November Actions, records some of these tumultuous events.)\n\nIn the 1980s, there was more controversy at MIT over its involvement in SDI (space weaponry) and CBW (chemical and biological warfare) research. More recently, MIT\'s research for the military has included work on robots, drones and \'battle suits\'.\n\nRecent history \n\nMIT has kept pace with and helped to advance the digital age. In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and networking technologies, students, staff, and faculty members at Project MAC, the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and the Tech Model Railroad Club wrote some of the earliest interactive computer video games like Spacewar! and created much of modern hacker slang and culture. Several major computer-related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s: Richard Stallman\'s GNU Project and the subsequent Free Software Foundation were founded in the mid-1980s at the AI Lab; the MIT Media Lab was founded in 1985 by Nicholas Negroponte and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology; the World Wide Web Consortium standards organization was founded at the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee; the OpenCourseWare project has made course materials for over 2,000 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002; and the One Laptop per Child initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005.\n\nMIT was named a sea-grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space-grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs. Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several successful development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus; the Tang Center for Management Education; several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology, brain and cognitive sciences, genomics, biotechnology, and cancer research; and a number of new "backlot" buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center. Construction on campus in the 2000s included expansions of the Media Lab, the Sloan School\'s eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest. In 2006, President Hockfield launched the MIT Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption.\n\nIn 2001, inspired by the open source and open access movements, MIT launched OpenCourseWare to make the lecture notes, problem sets, syllabi, exams, and lectures from the great majority of its courses available online for no charge, though without any formal accreditation for coursework completed. While the cost of supporting and hosting the project is high, OCW expanded in 2005 to include other universities as a part of the OpenCourseWare Consortium, which currently includes more than 250 academic institutions with content available in at least six languages. In 2011, MIT announced it would offer formal certification (but not credits or degrees) to online participants completing coursework in its "MITx" program, for a modest fee. The "edX" online platform supporting MITx was initially developed in partnership with Harvard and its analogous "Harvardx" initiative. The courseware platform is open source, and other universities have already joined and added their own course content. In March 2009 the MIT faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.\n\nMIT has its own police force. Three days after the Boston Marathon bombing of April 2013, MIT Police patrol officer Sean Collier was fatally shot by the suspects Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, setting off a violent manhunt that shut down the campus and much of the Boston metropolitan area for a day. One week later, Collier\'s memorial service was attended by more than 10,000 people, in a ceremony hosted by the MIT community with thousands of police officers from the New England region and Canada. On November 25, 2013, MIT announced the creation of the Collier Medal, to be awarded annually to "an individual or group that embodies the character and qualities that Officer Collier exhibited as a member of the MIT community and in all aspects of his life". The announcement further stated that "Future recipients of the award will include those whose contributions exceed the boundaries of their profession, those who have contributed to building bridges across the community, and those who consistently and selflessly perform acts of kindness".\n\nIn September 2017, the school announced the creation of an artificial intelligence research lab called the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. IBM will spend $240 million over the next decade, and the lab will be staffed by MIT and IBM scientists. In October 2018 MIT announced that it would open a new Schwarzman College of Computing dedicated to the study of artificial intelligence, named after lead donor and The Blackstone Group CEO Stephen Schwarzman. The focus of the new college is to study not just AI, but interdisciplinary AI education, and how AI can be used in fields as diverse as history and biology. The cost of buildings and new faculty for the new college is expected to be $1 billion upon completion.\n\nThe Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) was designed and constructed by a team of scientists from California Institute of Technology, MIT, and industrial contractors, and funded by the National Science Foundation. It was designed to open the field of gravitational-wave astronomy through the detection of gravitational waves predicted by general relativity. Gravitational waves were detected for the first time by the LIGO detector in 2015. For contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves, two Caltech physicists, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish, and MIT physicist Rainer Weiss won the Nobel Prize in physics in 2017. Weiss, who is also an MIT graduate, designed the laser interferometric technique, which served as the essential blueprint for the LIGO.\n\nIn 2021, MIT researchers in the field of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence developed an AI system that makes robots better at handling objects. The simulated, anthropomorphic hand created could manipulate more than 2,000 objects. And the system didn’t need to know what it was about to pick up to find a way to move it around in its hand.\n\nCampus \n\nMIT\'s  campus in the city of Cambridge spans approximately a mile along the north side of the Charles River basin. The campus is divided roughly in half by Massachusetts Avenue, with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east. The bridge closest to MIT is the Harvard Bridge, which is known for being marked off in a non-standard unit of length – the smoot.\n\nThe Kendall/MIT MBTA Red Line station is located on the northeastern edge of the campus, in Kendall Square. The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings, as well as socio-economically diverse residential neighborhoods. In early 2016, MIT presented its updated Kendall Square Initiative to the City of Cambridge, with plans for mixed-use educational, retail, residential, startup incubator, and office space in a dense high-rise transit-oriented development plan. The MIT Museum will eventually be moved immediately adjacent to a Kendall Square subway entrance, joining the List Visual Arts Center on the eastern end of the campus.\n\nEach building at MIT has a number (possibly preceded by a W, N, E, or NW) designation, and most have a name as well. Typically, academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name. The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings. Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking.\n\nMIT\'s on-campus nuclear reactor is one of the most powerful university-based nuclear reactors in the United States. The prominence of the reactor\'s containment building in a densely populated area has been controversial, but MIT maintains that it is well-secured. In 1999 Bill Gates donated US$20 million to MIT for the construction of a computer laboratory named the "William H. Gates Building", and designed by architect Frank Gehry. While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution, this was the first personal donation received from Gates.\n\nMIT Nano, also known as Building 12, is an interdisciplinary facility for nanoscale research. Its  cleanroom and research space, visible through expansive glass facades, is the largest research facility of its kind in the nation. With a cost of US$400 million, it is also one of the costliest buildings on campus. The facility also provides state-of-the-art nanoimaging capabilities with vibration damped imaging and metrology suites sitting atop a  slab of concrete underground.\n\nOther notable campus facilities include a pressurized wind tunnel for testing aerodynamic research, a towing tank for testing ship and ocean structure designs, and previously Alcator C-Mod, which was the largest fusion device operated by any university. MIT\'s campus-wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3,000 access points covering  of campus.\n\nIn 2001, the Environmental Protection Agency sued MIT for violating the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act with regard to its hazardous waste storage and disposal procedures. MIT settled the suit by paying a $155,000 fine and launching three environmental projects. In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus, the Institute has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency. MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles, subsidizing public transportation passes, and building a low-emission cogeneration plant that serves most of the campus electricity, heating, and cooling requirements.\n\nMIT has substantial commercial real estate holdings in Cambridge on which it pays property taxes, plus an additional voluntary payment in lieu of taxes (PILOT) on academic buildings which are legally tax-exempt. , it is the largest taxpayer in the city, contributing approximately 14% of the city\'s annual revenues. Holdings include Technology Square, parts of Kendall Square, and many properties in Cambridgeport and Area 4 neighboring the educational buildings. The land is held for investment purposes and potential long-term expansion.\n\nArchitecture \n\nMIT\'s School of Architecture, now the School of Architecture and Planning, was the first formal architecture program in the United States, and it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings. The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus, completed in 1916, are sometimes called the "Maclaurin buildings" after Institute president Richard Maclaurin who oversaw their construction. Designed by William Welles Bosworth, these imposing buildings were built of reinforced concrete, a first for a non-industrial – much less university – building in the US. Bosworth\'s design was influenced by the City Beautiful Movement of the early 1900s and features the Pantheon-esque Great Dome housing the Barker Engineering Library. The Great Dome overlooks Killian Court, where graduation ceremonies are held each year. The friezes of the limestone-clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers. The spacious Building 7 atrium at 77 Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the entrance to the Infinite Corridor and the rest of the campus.\n\nAlvar Aalto\'s Baker House (1947), Eero Saarinen\'s MIT Chapel and Kresge Auditorium (1955), and I.M. Pei\'s Green, Dreyfus, Landau, and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post-war modernist architecture. More recent buildings like Frank Gehry\'s Stata Center (2004), Steven Holl\'s Simmons Hall (2002), Charles Correa\'s Building 46 (2005), and Fumihiko Maki\'s Media Lab Extension (2009) stand out among the Boston area\'s classical architecture and serve as examples of contemporary campus "starchitecture". These buildings have not always been well received; in 2010, The Princeton Review included MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are "tiny, unsightly, or both".\n\nHousing \n\nUndergraduates are guaranteed four-year housing in one of MIT\'s 11 undergraduate dormitories. Out of the 11 dormitories, 10 are currently active due to one of the residential halls, Burton Conner, undergoing renovation from 2020 to 2022. Those living on campus can receive support and mentoring from live-in graduate student tutors, resident advisors, and faculty housemasters. Because housing assignments are made based on the preferences of the students themselves, diverse social atmospheres can be sustained in different living groups; for example, according to the Yale Daily News staff\'s The Insider\'s Guide to the Colleges, 2010, "The split between East Campus and West Campus is a significant characteristic of MIT. East Campus has gained a reputation as a thriving counterculture." MIT also has 5 dormitories for single graduate students and 2 apartment buildings on campus for married student families.\n\nMIT has an active Greek and co-op housing system, including thirty-six fraternities, sororities, and independent living groups (FSILGs). , 98% of all undergraduates lived in MIT-affiliated housing; 54% of the men participated in fraternities and 20% of the women were involved in sororities. Most FSILGs are located across the river in Back Bay near where MIT was founded, and there is also a cluster of fraternities on MIT\'s West Campus that face the Charles River Basin. After the 1997 alcohol-related death of Scott Krueger, a new pledge at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system starting in 2002. Because FSILGs had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off-campus, the new policy could not be implemented until Simmons Hall opened in that year.\n\nIn 2013–2014, MIT abruptly closed and then demolished undergrad dorm Bexley Hall, citing extensive water damage that made repairs infeasible. In 2017, MIT shut down Senior House after a century of service as an undergrad dorm. That year, MIT administrators released data showing just 60% of Senior House residents had graduated in four years. Campus-wide, the four-year graduation rate is 84% (the cumulative graduation rate is significantly higher).\n\nOrganization and administration \n\nMIT is chartered as a non-profit organization and is owned and governed by a privately appointed board of trustees known as the MIT Corporation. The current board consists of 43 members elected to five-year terms, 25 life members who vote until their 75th birthday, 3 elected officers (President, Treasurer, and Secretary), and 4 ex officio members (the president of the alumni association, the Governor of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Secretary of Education, and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court). The board is chaired by Diane Greene SM ’78, co-founder and former CEO of VMware and former CEO of  Google Cloud. The Corporation approves the budget, new programs, degrees and faculty appointments, and elects the President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and preside over the Institute\'s faculty. MIT\'s endowment and other financial assets are managed through a subsidiary called MIT Investment Management Company (MITIMCo). Valued at $16.4 billion in 2018, MIT\'s endowment was then the sixth-largest among American colleges and universities.\n\nMIT has five schools (Science, Engineering, Architecture and Planning, Management, and Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences) and one college (Schwarzman College of Computing), but no schools of law or medicine. While faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT\'s curriculum, research, student life, and administrative affairs, the chair of each of MIT\'s 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department\'s school, who in turn reports to the Provost under the President. The current president is L. Rafael Reif, who formerly served as provost under President Susan Hockfield, the first woman to hold the post.\n\nAcademics \nMIT is a large, highly residential, research university with a majority of enrollments in graduate and professional programs. The university has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1929. MIT operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall semester beginning after Labor Day and ending in mid-December, a 4-week "Independent Activities Period" in the month of January, and the spring semester commencing in early February and ceasing in late May.\n\nMIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone. Departments and their corresponding majors are numbered in the approximate order of their foundation; for example, Civil and Environmental Engineering is , while Linguistics and Philosophy is . Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), the most popular department, collectively identify themselves as "Course 6". MIT students use a combination of the department\'s course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects; for instance, the introductory calculus-based classical mechanics course is simply "8.01" at MIT.\n\nUndergraduate program \nThe four-year, full-time undergraduate program maintains a balance between professional majors and those in the arts and sciences, and has been dubbed "most selective" by U.S. News, admitting few transfer students and 4.1% of its applicants in the 2020–2021 admissions cycle. MIT offers 44 undergraduate degrees across its five schools. In the 2017–2018 academic year, 1,045 bachelor of science degrees (abbreviated "SB") were granted, the only type of undergraduate degree MIT now awards. In the 2011 fall term, among students who had designated a major, the School of Engineering was the most popular division, enrolling 63% of students in its 19 degree programs, followed by the School of Science (29%), School of Humanities, Arts, & Social Sciences (3.7%), Sloan School of Management (3.3%), and School of Architecture and Planning (2%). The largest undergraduate degree programs were in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (), Computer Science and Engineering (), Mechanical Engineering (), Physics (), and Mathematics ().\n\nAll undergraduates are required to complete a core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements (GIRs). The Science Requirement, generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors, comprises two semesters of physics, two semesters of calculus, one semester of chemistry, and one semester of biology. There is a Laboratory Requirement, usually satisfied by an appropriate class in a course major. The Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) Requirement consists of eight semesters of classes in the humanities, arts, and social sciences, including at least one semester from each division as well as the courses required for a designated concentration in a HASS division. Under the Communication Requirement, two of the HASS classes, plus two of the classes taken in the designated major must be "communication-intensive", including "substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation". Finally, all students are required to complete a swimming test; non-varsity athletes must also take four quarters of physical education classes.\n\nMost classes rely on a combination of lectures, recitations led by associate professors or graduate students, weekly problem sets ("p-sets"), and periodic quizzes or tests. While the pace and difficulty of MIT coursework has been compared to "drinking from a fire hose", the freshmen retention rate at MIT is similar to other research universities. The "pass/no-record" grading system relieves some pressure for first-year undergraduates. For each class taken in the fall term, freshmen transcripts will either report only that the class was passed, or otherwise not have any record of it. In the spring term, passing grades (A, B, C) appear on the transcript while non-passing grades are again not recorded. (Grading had previously been "pass/no record" all freshman year, but was amended for the Class of 2006 to prevent students from gaming the system by completing required major classes in their freshman year.) Also, freshmen may choose to join alternative learning communities, such as Experimental Study Group, Concourse, or Terrascope.\n\nIn 1969, Margaret MacVicar founded the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers. Students join or initiate research projects ("UROPs") for academic credit, pay, or on a volunteer basis through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly. A substantial majority of undergraduates participate. Students often become published, file patent applications, and/or launch start-up companies based upon their experience in UROPs.\n\nIn 1970, the then-Dean of Institute Relations, Benson R. Snyder, published The Hidden Curriculum, arguing that education at MIT was often slighted in favor of following a set of unwritten expectations and that graduating with good grades was more often the product of figuring out the system rather than a solid education. The successful student, according to Snyder, was the one who was able to discern which of the formal requirements were to be ignored in favor of which unstated norms. For example, organized student groups had compiled "course bibles"—collections of problem-set and examination questions and answers for later students to use as references. This sort of gamesmanship, Snyder argued, hindered development of a creative intellect and contributed to student discontent and unrest.\n\nGraduate program \nMIT\'s graduate program has high coexistence with the undergraduate program, and many courses are taken by qualified students at both levels. MIT offers a comprehensive doctoral program with degrees in the humanities, social sciences, and STEM fields as well as professional degrees. The Institute offers graduate programs leading to academic degrees such as the Master of Science (which is abbreviated as SM at MIT), various Engineer\'s Degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), and Doctor of Science (ScD) and interdisciplinary graduate programs such as the MD-PhD (with Harvard Medical School) and a joint program in oceanography with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.\n\nAdmission to graduate programs is decentralized; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program. More than 90% of doctoral students are supported by fellowships, research assistantships (RAs), or teaching assistantships (TAs).\n\nMIT Bootcamps \nMIT Bootcamps are intense week-long innovation and leadership programs that challenge participants to develop a venture in a week. Each Bootcamp centers around a particular topic, specific to an industry, leadership skill set, or emerging technology. Cohorts are organized into small teams who work on an entrepreneurial project together, in addition to individual learning and team coaching. The program includes a series of online seminars with MIT faculty, practitioners, and industry experts, innovation workshops with bootcamp instructors focused on putting the theory participants have learned into practice, coaching sessions, and informal office hours for learners to exchange ideas freely. Bootcampers are tasked with weekly "deliverables," which are key elements of a business plan, to help guide the group through the decision-making process involved in building an enterprise. The experience culminates in a final pitch session, judged by a panel of experts.\n\nMIT Bootcamp instructors include Eric von Hippel, Sanjay Sarma, Erdin Beshimov, and Bill Aulet. MIT Bootcamps were founded by Erdin Beshimov.\n\nRankings   \n\nMIT also places among the top five in many overall rankings of universities (see right) and rankings based on students\' revealed preferences. For several years, U.S. News & World Report, the QS World University Rankings, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities have ranked MIT\'s School of Engineering first, as did the 1995 National Research Council report. In the same lists, MIT\'s strongest showings apart from in engineering are in computer science, the natural sciences, business, architecture, economics, linguistics, mathematics, and, to a lesser extent, political science and philosophy.\n\nTimes Higher Education has recognized MIT as one of the world\'s "six super brands" on its World Reputation Rankings, along with Berkeley, Cambridge, Harvard, Oxford and Stanford. In 2019, it ranked 3rd among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings. In 2017, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings rated MIT the #2 university for arts and humanities. MIT was ranked #7 in 2015 and #6 in 2017 of the Nature Index Annual Tables, which measure the largest contributors to papers published in 82 leading journals.\nGeorgetown University researchers ranked it #3 in the U.S. for 20-year return on investment.\n\nCollaborations \n\nThe university historically pioneered research and training collaborations between academia, industry and government. \xa0In 1946, President Compton, Harvard Business School professor Georges Doriot, and Massachusetts Investor Trust chairman Merrill Grisswold founded American Research and Development Corporation, the first American venture-capital firm. \xa0In 1948, Compton established the MIT Industrial Liaison Program. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a declining economy by transferring taxpayer-funded research and technology to international – especially Japanese – firms that were competing with struggling American businesses. On the other hand, MIT\'s extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has led to several MIT leaders serving as presidential scientific advisers since 1940. MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue effective lobbying for research funding and national science policy.\n\nThe US Justice Department began an investigation in 1989, and in 1991 filed an antitrust suit against MIT, the eight Ivy League colleges, and eleven other institutions for allegedly engaging in price-fixing during their annual "Overlap Meetings", which were held to prevent bidding wars over promising prospective students from consuming funds for need-based scholarships. While the Ivy League institutions settled, MIT contested the charges, arguing that the practice was not anti-competitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students. MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994.\n\nMIT\'s proximity to Harvard University ("the other school up the river") has led to a substantial number of research collaborations such as the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and the Broad Institute. In addition, students at the two schools can cross-register for credits toward their own school\'s degrees without any additional fees. A cross-registration program between MIT and Wellesley College has also existed since 1969, and in 2002 the Cambridge–MIT Institute launched an undergraduate exchange program between MIT and the University of Cambridge. MIT also has a long term partnership with Imperial College London, for both student exchanges and research collaboration. More modest cross-registration programs have been established with Boston University, Brandeis University, Tufts University, Massachusetts College of Art and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.\n\nMIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston area, such as the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Ongoing international research and educational collaborations include the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions (AMS Institute), Singapore-MIT Alliance, MIT-Politecnico di Milano, MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program, and projects in other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) program.\n\nThe mass-market magazine Technology Review is published by MIT through a subsidiary company, as is a special edition that also serves as an alumni magazine. The MIT Press is a major university press, publishing over 200 books and 30 journals annually, emphasizing science and technology as well as arts, architecture, new media, current events, and social issues.\n\nLibraries, collections and museums \n\nThe MIT library system consists of five subject libraries: Barker (Engineering), Dewey (Economics), Hayden (Humanities and Science), Lewis (Music), and Rotch (Arts and Architecture). There are also various specialized libraries and archives. The libraries contain more than 2.9 million printed volumes, 2.4 million microforms, 49,000 print or electronic journal subscriptions, and 670 reference databases. The past decade has seen a trend of increased focus on digital over print resources in the libraries. Notable collections include the Lewis Music Library with an emphasis on 20th and 21st-century music and electronic music, the List Visual Arts Center\'s rotating exhibitions of contemporary art, and the Compton Gallery\'s cross-disciplinary exhibitions. MIT allocates a percentage of the budget for all new construction and renovation to commission and support its extensive public art and outdoor sculpture collection.\n\nThe MIT Museum was founded in 1971 and collects, preserves, and exhibits artifacts significant to the culture and history of MIT. The museum now engages in significant educational outreach programs for the general public, including the annual Cambridge Science Festival, the first celebration of this kind in the United States. Since 2005, its official mission has been, "to engage the wider community with MIT\'s science, technology and other areas of scholarship in ways that will best serve the nation and the world in the 21st century".\n\nResearch \nMIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity"; research expenditures totaled $952 million in 2017. The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research, with the Department of Health and Human Services granting $255.9 million, Department of Defense $97.5 million, Department of Energy $65.8 million, National Science Foundation $61.4 million, and NASA $27.4 million. MIT employs approximately 1300 researchers in addition to faculty. In 2011, MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 632 inventions, were issued 153 patents, earned $85.4 million in cash income, and received $69.6 million in royalties. Through programs like the Deshpande Center, MIT faculty leverage their research and discoveries into multi-million-dollar commercial ventures.\n\nIn electronics, magnetic core memory, radar, single electron transistors, and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers. Harold Eugene Edgerton was a pioneer in high speed photography and sonar. Claude E. Shannon developed much of modern information theory and discovered the application of Boolean logic to digital circuit design theory. In the domain of computer science, MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to cybernetics, artificial intelligence, computer languages, machine learning, robotics, and cryptography. At least nine Turing Award laureates and seven recipients of the Draper Prize in engineering have been or are currently associated with MIT.\n\nCurrent and previous physics faculty have won eight Nobel Prizes, four Dirac Medals, and three Wolf Prizes predominantly for their contributions to subatomic and quantum theory. Members of the chemistry department have been awarded three Nobel Prizes and one Wolf Prize for the discovery of novel syntheses and methods. MIT biologists have been awarded six Nobel Prizes for their contributions to genetics, immunology, oncology, and molecular biology. Professor Eric Lander was one of the principal leaders of the Human Genome Project. Positronium atoms, synthetic penicillin, synthetic self-replicating molecules, and the genetic bases for Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig\'s disease) and Huntington\'s disease were first discovered at MIT. Jerome Lettvin transformed the study of cognitive science with his paper "What the frog\'s eye tells the frog\'s brain". Researchers developed a system to convert MRI scans into 3D printed physical models.\n\nIn the domain of humanities, arts, and social sciences, as of October 2019 MIT economists have been awarded seven Nobel Prizes and nine John Bates Clark Medals. Linguists Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle authored seminal texts on generative grammar and phonology. The MIT Media Lab, founded in 1985 within the School of Architecture and Planning and known for its unconventional research, has been home to influential researchers such as constructivist educator and Logo creator Seymour Papert.\n\nSpanning many of the above fields, MacArthur Fellowships (the so-called "Genius Grants") have been awarded to 50 people associated with MIT. Five Pulitzer Prize–winning writers currently work at or have retired from MIT. Four current or former faculty are members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.\n\nAllegations of research misconduct or improprieties have received substantial press coverage. Professor David Baltimore, a Nobel Laureate, became embroiled in a misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991. Professor Ted Postol has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to whitewash potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a ballistic missile defense test, though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed. Associate Professor Luk Van Parijs was dismissed in 2005 following allegations of scientific misconduct and found guilty of the same by the United States Office of Research Integrity in 2009.\n\nIn 2019, Clarivate Analytics named 54 members of MIT\'s faculty to its list of "Highly Cited Researchers". That number places MIT 8th among the world\'s universities.\n\nDiscoveries and innovation\n\nNatural sciences \n Oncogene – Robert Weinberg discovered genetic basis of human cancer.\n Reverse transcription – David Baltimore independently isolated, in 1970 at MIT, two RNA tumor viruses: R-MLV and again RSV.\n Thermal death time – Samuel Cate Prescott and William Lyman Underwood from 1895 to 1898. Done for canning of food. Applications later found useful in medical devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.\n\nComputer and applied sciences \n Akamai Technologies – Daniel Lewin and Tom Leighton developed a faster content delivery network, now one of the world\'s largest distributed computing platforms, responsible for serving between 15 and 30 percent of all web traffic.\n Cryptography – MIT researchers Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman developed one of the first practical public-key cryptosystems , the RSA cryptosystem, and started a company, RSA Security .\n Digital circuits – Claude Shannon, while a master\'s degree student at MIT, developed the digital circuit design theory which paved the way for modern computers.\n Electronic ink – developed by Joseph Jacobson at MIT Media Lab.\n Emacs (text editor) – development began during the 1970s at the MIT AI Lab.\n Flight recorder (black box) – Charles Stark Draper developed the black box at MIT\'s Instrumentation Laboratory. That lab later made the Apollo Moon landings possible through the Apollo Guidance Computer it designed for NASA.\n GNU Project – Richard Stallman formally founded the free software movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project at MIT.\n Julia (programming language) - Development was started in 2009, by Jeff Bezanson, Stefan Karpinski, Viral B. Shah, and Alan Edelman, all at MIT at that time, and continued with the contribution of a dedicated MIT Julia Lab\n Lisp (programming language) – John McCarthy invented Lisp at MIT in 1958.\n Lithium-ion battery efficiencies – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material\'s conductivity by doping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium.\n Macsyma, one of the oldest general-purpose computer algebra systems; the GPL-licensed version Maxima remains in wide use.\n MIT OpenCourseWare – the OpenCourseWare movement started in 1999 when the University of Tübingen in Germany published videos of lectures online for its timms initiative (Tübinger Internet Multimedia Server). The OCW movement only took off, however, with the launch of MIT OpenCourseWare and the Open Learning Initiative at Carnegie Mellon University in October 2002. The movement was soon reinforced by the launch of similar projects at Yale, Utah State University, the University of Michigan and the University of California Berkeley.\n Perdix micro-drone – autonomous drone that uses artificial intelligence to swarm with many other Perdix drones.\n Project MAC – groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. DARPA funded project.\n Radar – developed at MIT\'s Radiation Laboratory during World War II.\n SKETCHPAD – invented by Ivan Sutherland at MIT (presented in his PhD thesis). It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction (HCI). Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design (CAD) programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general.\n VisiCalc – first spreadsheet computer program for personal computers, originally released for the Apple II by VisiCorp. MIT alumni Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston rented time sharing at night on an MIT mainframe computer (that cost $1/hr for use).\n World Wide Web Consortium – founded in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee, (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web\n X Window System – pioneering architecture-independent system for graphical user interfaces that has been widely used for Unix and Linux systems.\n\nCompanies and entrepreneurship \nMIT alumni and faculty have founded numerous companies, some of which are shown below:\n\n Analog Devices, 1965, co-founders Ray Stata, (SB, SM) and Matthew Lorber (SB)\n BlackRock, 1988, co-founder Bennett Golub, (SB, SM, PhD)\n Bose Corporation, 1964, founder Amar Bose (SB, PhD)\n Buzzfeed, 2006, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)\n Dropbox, 2007, founders Drew Houston (SB) and Arash Ferdowsi (drop-out)\n Hewlett-Packard, 1939, co-founder William R. Hewlett (SM)\n HuffPost, 2005, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)\n Intel, 1968, co-founder Robert Noyce (PhD)\n Koch Industries, 1940, founder Fred C. Koch (SB), sons William (SB, PhD), David (SB)\n Qualcomm, 1985, co-founders Irwin M. Jacobs (SM, PhD) and Andrew Viterbi (SB, SM)\n Raytheon, 1922, co-founder Vannevar Bush (DEng, Professor)\n Renaissance Technologies, 1982, founder James Simons (SB)\n Texas Instruments, 1930, founder Cecil Howard Green (SB, SM)\n TSMC, 1987, founder Morris Chang (SB, SM)\n VMware, 1998, co-founder Diane Greene (SM)\n\nTraditions and student activities \n\nThe faculty and student body place a high value on meritocracy and on technical proficiency. MIT has never awarded an honorary degree, nor does it award athletic scholarships,  ad eundem degrees, or Latin honors upon graduation. However, MIT has twice awarded honorary professorships: to Winston Churchill in 1949 and Salman Rushdie in 1993.\n\nMany upperclass students and alumni wear a large, heavy, distinctive class ring known as the "Brass Rat". Originally created in 1929, the ring\'s official name is the "Standard Technology Ring". The undergraduate ring design (a separate graduate student version exists as well) varies slightly from year to year to reflect the unique character of the MIT experience for that class, but always features a three-piece design, with the MIT seal and the class year each appearing on a separate face, flanking a large rectangular bezel bearing an image of a beaver. The initialism IHTFP, representing the informal school motto "I Hate This Fucking Place" and jocularly euphemized as "I Have Truly Found Paradise", "Institute Has The Finest Professors", "Institute of Hacks, TomFoolery and Pranks", "It\'s Hard to Fondle Penguins", and other variations, has occasionally been featured on the ring given its historical prominence in student culture.\n\nActivities \n\nMIT has over 500 recognized student activity groups, including a campus radio station, The Tech student newspaper, an annual entrepreneurship competition, a crime club, and weekly screenings of popular films by the Lecture Series Committee. Less traditional activities include the "world\'s largest open-shelf collection of science fiction" in English, a model railroad club, and a vibrant folk dance scene. Students, faculty, and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the MIT Museum, Edgerton Center, and MIT Public Service Center.\n\nFraternities and sororities provide a base of activities in addition to housing. Approximately 1,000 undergrads, 48% of men and 30% of women, participate in one of several dozen Greek Life men\'s, women\'s and co-ed chapters on the campus. \n\nThe Independent Activities Period is a four-week-long "term" offering hundreds of optional classes, lectures, demonstrations, and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters. Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are Autonomous Robot Design (course 6.270), Robocraft Programming (6.370), and MasLab competitions, the annual "mystery hunt", and Charm School. More than 250 students pursue externships annually at companies in the US and abroad.\n\nMany MIT students also engage in "hacking", which encompasses both the physical exploration of areas that are generally off-limits (such as rooftops and steam tunnels), as well as elaborate practical jokes. Examples of high-profile hacks have included the abduction of Caltech\'s cannon, reconstructing a Wright Flyer atop the Great Dome, and adorning the John Harvard statue with the Master Chief\'s Mjölnir Helmet.\n\nAthletics \n\nMIT sponsors 31 varsity sports and has one of the three broadest NCAA Division III athletic programs. MIT participates in the NCAA\'s Division III, the New England Women\'s and Men\'s Athletic Conference, the New England Football Conference, NCAA\'s Division I Patriot League for women\'s crew, and the Collegiate Water Polo Association (CWPA) for Men\'s Water Polo. Men\'s crew competes outside the NCAA in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC). The intercollegiate sports teams, called the MIT Engineers won 22 Team National Championships, 42 Individual National Championships. MIT is the all-time Division III leader in producing Academic All-Americas (302) and rank second across all NCAA Divisions only behind the University of Nebraska. MIT Athletes won 13 Elite 90 awards and ranks first among NCAA Division III programs, and third among all divisions. In April 2009, budget cuts led to MIT eliminating eight of its 41 sports, including the mixed men\'s and women\'s teams in alpine skiing and pistol; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics; and men\'s programs in golf and wrestling.\n\nPeople\n\nStudents \n\nMIT enrolled 4,602 undergraduates and 6,972 graduate students in 2018–2019. Undergraduate and graduate students came from all 50 US states as well as from 115 foreign countries.\n\nMIT received 33,240 applications for admission to the undergraduate Class of 2025: it admitted 1,365 (4.1 percent). In 2019, 29,114 applications were received for graduate and advanced degree programs across all departments; 3,670 were admitted (12.6 percent) and 2,312 enrolled (63 percent).\n\nUndergraduate tuition and fees for 2019-2020 was $53,790 for nine months. 59% of students were awarded a need-based MIT scholarship. Graduate tuition and fees for 2019-2020 was also $53,790 for nine months, and summer tuition was $17,800. Financial support for graduate students are provided in large part by individual departments. They include fellowships, traineeships, teaching and research assistantships, and loans. The annual increase in expenses had led to a student tradition (dating back to the 1960s) of tongue-in-cheek "tuition riots".\n\nMIT has been nominally co-educational since admitting Ellen Swallow Richards in 1870. Richards also became the first female member of MIT\'s faculty, specializing in sanitary chemistry. Female students remained a small minority prior to the completion of the first wing of a women\'s dormitory, McCormick Hall, in 1963. Between 1993 and 2009 the proportion of women rose from 34 percent to 45 percent of undergraduates and from 20 percent to 31 percent of graduate students. , women outnumbered men in Biology, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Architecture, Urban Planning, and Biological Engineering.\n\nFaculty and staff \n\n, MIT had 1,030 faculty members. Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes, for advising both graduate and undergraduate students, and for sitting on academic committees, as well as for conducting original research. Between 1964 and 2009 a total of seventeen faculty and staff members affiliated with MIT won Nobel Prizes (thirteen of them in the latter 25 years). As of October 2020, 37 MIT faculty members, past or present, have won Nobel Prizes, the majority in Economics or Physics.\n\n, current faculty and teaching staff included 67 Guggenheim Fellows, 6 Fulbright Scholars, and 22 MacArthur Fellows. Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as Institute Professors for the remainder of their tenures. Susan Hockfield, a molecular neurobiologist, served as MIT\'s president from 2004 to 2012. She was the first woman to hold the post.\n\nMIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities. Founding faculty-member Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard University in 1869, a post he would hold for 40 years, during which he wielded considerable influence both on American higher education and on secondary education. MIT alumnus and faculty member George Ellery Hale played a central role in the development of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and other faculty members have been key founders of Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in nearby Needham, Massachusetts.\n\n former provost Robert A. Brown served as president of Boston University; former provost Mark Wrighton is chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis; former associate provost Alice Gast is president of Lehigh University; and former professor Suh Nam-pyo is president of KAIST. Former dean of the School of Science Robert J. Birgeneau was the chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (2004–2013); former professor John Maeda was president of Rhode Island School of Design (RISD, 2008–2013); former professor David Baltimore was president of Caltech (1997–2006); and MIT alumnus and former assistant professor Hans Mark served as chancellor of the University of Texas system (1984–1992). \n\nIn addition, faculty members have been recruited to lead governmental agencies; for example, former professor Marcia McNutt is president of the National Academy of Sciences, urban studies professor Xavier de Souza Briggs served as the associate director of the White House Office of Management and Budget, and biology professor Eric Lander was a co-chair of the President\'s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. In 2013, faculty member Ernest Moniz was nominated by President Obama and later confirmed as United States Secretary of Energy. Former professor Hans Mark served as Secretary of the Air Force from 1979 to 1981. Alumna and Institute Professor Sheila Widnall served as Secretary of the Air Force between 1993 and 1997, making her the first female Secretary of the Air Force and first woman to lead an entire branch of the US military in the Department of Defense.\n\n, MIT was the second-largest employer in the city of Cambridge. Based on feedback from employees, MIT was ranked #7 as a place to work, among US colleges and universities . Surveys cited a "smart", "creative", "friendly" environment, noting that the work-life balance tilts towards a "strong work ethic" but complaining about "low pay" compared to an industry position.\n\nNotable alumni \n\nMany of MIT\'s over 120,000 alumni have achieved considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and  business. , 41 MIT alumni have won Nobel Prizes, 48 have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, 61 have been selected as Marshall Scholars, and 3 have been selected as Mitchell Scholars.\n\nAlumni in United States politics and public service include former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke, former MA-1 Representative John Olver, former CA-13 Representative Pete Stark, Representative Thomas Massie, Senator Alex Padilla, former  National Economic Council chairman Lawrence H. Summers, and former Council of Economic Advisors chairman Christina Romer. MIT alumni in international politics include Foreign Affairs Minister of Iran Ali Akbar Salehi,  Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President of Colombia Virgilio Barco Vargas, President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi, former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Raghuram Rajan, former  British Foreign Minister David Miliband, former Greek Prime Minister Lucas Papademos, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, former  Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Ahmed Chalabi, former Minister of Education and Culture of The Republic of Indonesia Yahya Muhaimin, former Jordanian Minister of Education, Higher Education and Scientific Research and former Jordanian Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Khaled Toukan. Alumni in sports have included Olympic fencing champion Johan Harmenberg.\n\nMIT alumni founded or co-founded many notable companies, such as  Intel,  McDonnell  Douglas,  Texas Instruments, 3Com,  Qualcomm,  Bose,  Raytheon, Apotex,  Koch Industries,  Rockwell International,  Genentech, Dropbox, and  Campbell Soup. According to the British newspaper The Guardian, "a survey of living MIT alumni found that they have formed 25,800 companies, employing more than three million people including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley. Those firms collectively generate global revenues of about $1.9\xa0trillion (£1.2\xa0trillion) a year". If the companies founded by MIT alumni were a country, they would have the 11th-highest GDP of any country in the world.\n\nMIT alumni have  led prominent institutions of higher education, including the  University of California system,  Harvard University, the New York Institute of Technology,  Johns Hopkins University,  Carnegie Mellon University,  Tufts University,  Rochester Institute of Technology,  Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design, the New Jersey Institute of Technology,  Northeastern University, Tel Aviv University,  Lahore University of Management Sciences,  Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,  Tecnológico de Monterrey, Purdue University,  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, KAIST, and  Quaid-e-Azam University. Berklee College of Music, the largest independent college of contemporary music in the world, was founded and led by MIT alumnus Lawrence Berk for more than three decades.\n\nMore than one third of the United States\' crewed spaceflights have included  MIT-educated astronauts, a contribution exceeding that of any university excluding the United States service academies. Of the 12 people who have set foot on the Moon , four graduated from MIT (among them Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin). Alumnus and former faculty member Qian Xuesen led the Chinese nuclear-weapons program and became instrumental in the  PRC rocket-program.\n\nNoted alumni in non-scientific fields include author Hugh Lofting, sculptor Daniel Chester French, guitarist Tom Scholz of the band  Boston, the British BBC and ITN correspondent and political advisor David Walter, The New York Times columnist and Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul Krugman, The Bell Curve author Charles Murray, United States Supreme Court building architect Cass Gilbert,\nPritzker Prize-winning architects I.M. Pei and Gordon Bunshaft.\n\nSee also \n\n The Coop, campus bookstore\n Engineering\n Glossary of engineering\nMurray Eden\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n Also see the bibliography maintained by MIT\'s Institute Archives & Special Collections and Written Works in MIT in popular culture.\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Nelkin, Dorothy. (1972). The University and Military Research: Moral politics at MIT (science, technology and society). New York: Cornell University Press. .\n \n \n Postle, Denis. (1965). How to be First. BBC documentary on MIT available at reidplaza.com\n Renehan, Colm. (2007). Peace Activism at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1975 to 2001: A case study, PhD thesis, Boston: Boston College.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n \n\n \nUniversities and colleges in Cambridge, Massachusetts\nUniversities and colleges in Middlesex County, Massachusetts\nEngineering universities and colleges in Massachusetts\nTechnological universities in the United States\nLand-grant universities and colleges\nEducational institutions established in 1861\n1861 establishments in Massachusetts\nRugby league stadiums in the United States\nScience and technology in Massachusetts\nPrivate universities and colleges in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '2966080',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDC%203000%20series',
  'title': 'CDC 3000 series',
  'text': 'The CDC 3000 series ("thirty-six hundred" of "thirty-one hundred") computers from Control Data Corporation were mid-1960s follow-ons to the CDC 1604 and CDC 924 systems.\n\nOver time, a range of machines were produced - divided into\n the 48-bit upper 3000 series and \n the 24-bit lower 3000 series.\n\nEarly in the 1970s CDC phased out production of the 3000 series, which had been the cash cows of Control Data during the 1960s; sales of these machines funded the company while the 6000 series was designed.\n\nSpecifications\n\nUpper 3000 series\n\nThe upper 3000 series used a 48-bit word size.  The first 3000 machine to be produced was the CDC 3600; first delivered in June 1963.  First deliveries of the CDC 3400 and CDC 3800 were in December 1965.  These machines were designed for scientific computing applications; they were the upgrade path for users of the CDC 1604 machines.  However these machines were overshadowed by the upcoming 60-bit CDC 6000 series machines when the CDC 6600 was introduced in December 1964 and delivered in 1965.  Some high-end computer labs purchased these machines as stopgaps, while waiting for delivery of their 6600 machine.\n\nLower 3000 series\nThe lower 3000 series used a 24-bit word size.  They were based on the earlier CDC 924 - a 24-bit version of the (48-bit) CDC 1604.  The first lower 3000 to be released was the CDC 3200 (May 1964), followed by the smaller CDC 3100 (February 1965), and the CDC 3300 (December 1965).  The final machine in the series, the CDC 3500, was released in March 1967 and used integrated circuits instead of discrete components.  The 3300 and 3500 had optional relocation capabilities, floating point arithmetic, and BDP (Business + Data Processing) instructions.  These machines were targeted towards business and commercial computing.\n\nThe 3150\nControl Data Corporation\'s CDC 3150 was described as a "batch computer," and it included a FORTRAN and a COBOL compiler. Its  console looked like  this.\n\nInstruction sets\nThe instruction set of the upper 3000 series was composed mostly of 24-bit instructions (packed two per word), but also contained some 48-bit instructions.  The lower 3000 was based on a 24-bit subset of those available on the upper 3000 systems.  It was therefore possible to write programs which would run on all 3000 systems.  And as these systems were based on the prior 1604 and 924 instruction sets, some backward compatibility also existed.  However the systems did diverge from each other in areas such as relocation and the BDP instructions.\n\nMemory\nAll 3000 series computers used magnetic-core memory.  The CDC 3500 machine used the same core memory modules as used in the CDC 6000 / Cyber 70 series computers.\n\nArchitecture\nThe lower 3000 CPU was a 24-bit architecture: instructions were 24 bits in length, as were the two operand registers A and Q.  There were four index registers of 15 bits, B0 through B3, though B0 is always zero (zero when read; writes do not affect the value).  There was no status (flags or condition code) register.  Up to 32,768 words of core memory, 24 bits per word, could be directly addressed, and multiple banks could be switched in.  Two or three memory bank configurations were the most common.\n\nEach instruction contained six bits of opcode, one bit specifying whether indirect addressing used, two bits of index register address and fifteen bits of address.\n\nArithmetic was ones\' complement, so there were two forms of zero: positive zero and negative zero.  The A and Q register could function as a combined 48-bit register for certain arithmetic instructions. The E register had 48 bits.\n\nThe 3600 CPU could execute around one million instructions per second (1 MIPS), giving it supercomputer status in 1965.\n\nMuch of the basic architecture design of the 3000 series was done by Seymour Cray, then passed on to others to complete as he moved on to designing the CDC 6000 series.  Several of the innovative features that made the 6600 \'the first supercomputer\' can be seen in prototype in the 3000 series.\n\nSoftware\nThe operating systems for the upper 3000 were called SCOPE (Supervisory Control Of Program Execution).  Tape SCOPE was a serial batch OS with no buffering for card reading or print spooling.  Drum SCOPE upgraded performance and featured print spooling.  CDC developed a OS for the 3800 called SUMMIT (Simultaneous Usage of Multiprogramming, Multiprocessing with Interactive Timesharing) to take advantage of hardware\'s advanced features.  Because CDC focused all its resources in advancing the 6600 system, SUMMIT was never released.\n\nThe earliest operating system for the lower 3000 series was called RTS OS.  However it was quickly replaced with MSOS (Mass Storage OS).  The premier operating system for the CDC 3300 and CDC 3500 was called MASTER (Multi Access, Shared Time Executive Routine).  MASTER was a multi-tasking, disk-based OS but still batch job oriented. Card jobs were cached to disk and printer output spooled.  MASTER optimized memory usage with page-mapping hardware.\n\nAn operating system called REAL-TIME SCOPE existed for both lower- and upper-3000 systems.  A disk-based version of SCOPE was eventually made available for the upper-3000 systems.\n\nFORTRAN, COBOL, and ALGOL were available.  The assembly language was called COMPASS. These were available from CDC.\n\nAn APL system for the upper 3000 series computers was developed at the University of Massachusetts Amherst. This system was made available to other users of the upper 3000 series.\n\nCharacter set\nThe operating systems for the CDC 3xxx typically used six-bit characters, so the 64 character set did not contain lowercase letters.  The character set contained (in display code order):\n : A-Z 0-9 + - * / ( ) $ = (space) , . # [ ] % " _ ! & \' ? < > @ \\ ^ ;\nThis six-bit extension of the four-bit BCD encoding was referred to as BCDIC (BCD interchange code.) IBM later extended this code further to create the eight-bit "extended BCDIC", or EBCDIC code.\n\nDepending on the device, some characters are rendered differently, especially the lineprinter and some terminals:\n\nNote the absence of control characters, especially carriage return and line feed.  These were encoded by the record structure.\n\nPartial list of users\n\nUnited States \n\nOregon State University offered a CDC 3300 for use from the mid-to-late 1960s up until about 1980.  It used a home grown operating system known as OS3 (for Oregon State Open Shop Operating System).\n\nThe U.S. Internal Revenue Service used CDC 3000 series computers for many years.\n\nNortheastern University in Boston used a CDC 3300 in the early 1970s.\n\nInternational Timesharing Corporation (ITS) of Chaska, Minnesota sold timesharing services using CDC 3300s. (ITS later acquired another timesharing company that used CDC 3600s, before it, in turn, was acquired by United Computing Systems of Kansas City, Missouri.)\n\nCalifornia State University at Northridge had a dual 3170 that provided timesharing service to the California State University and College system. Many of the other campuses also had CDC 3150 machines for local batch operation. In 1970 CDC 3150s were installed at most campuses of the California State College system.  San Jose State and LA State got CDC 3300s and served as regional data centers with (very flaky) data links to the other campuses.  California State Polytechnic College (San Luis Obispo) and San Diego State University had IBM System/360s. The rest got 3150s. Typical configuration was 24K words of 24-bit core memory, four 7-track tape drives, drum printer, card reader, card punch, two 8MB disc drives (removable packs). At Humboldt State College where I worked this was used for both administrative and instructional purposes.  It replaced an IBM 1620.\n\nThe US Air Force used numerous CDC 3800 series systems in the Air Force Satellite Control Facility located at what is now Onizuka Air Force Station in Sunnyvale, California.  As part of the Air Force Satellite Control Network, they were used to do orbital planning and maintenance calculations for defense satellites until they were phased out and replaced by IBM mainframes in the mid-1990s.  These systems used the JOVIAL programming language to provide the accuracy necessary for these calculations.\n\nThe Center for Naval Analyses had a CDC 3800 from about 1968 until about 1975. It was used for scientific computing in support of operations research for the U. S. Navy. \n\nMichigan State University\'s  Department of Computer Science and Engineering had a CDC 3600\n\nCDC\'s South West Region had the following accounts late 1960s and early 1970s:\nLong Beach Memorial Hospital, Long Beach, California (patient location tracking and billing)\nMany of the California state universities (Fullerton, Los Angeles, etc.) in their engineering departments\nCalifornia State College Los Angeles was also the California state southern region data center.  (common admissions, etc.)\nCalifornia State College San Jose, the Northern California regional data center, had a CDC 3300, as did LA State Southern Regional data center.\nJet Propulsion Lab (Pasadena, California) - test of various outer space modules\nUniversity of Texas, El Paso\nVandenburg AFB (missile launch control) (also two CDC 3600s - main base - use unknown)\nThompson-Ramo-Wollridge - Redondo Beach, California\nCal Poly, Pomona, California (engineering school)\nCal Poly Northridge, California (engineering school)\nPoint Magoo, Naval Air Station (weather balloon tracking/data analysis)\nEl Centro Naval Air Station\nCamp Pendleton, California (US Marine Corps) - development/test bed for Marine Tactical Aircraft Command and Control System - MTACCS) - Initially 3300 - upgraded to a 3500 about 1973-74.\nBeverly Hills Data Center - Part of the CDC Cybernet network and also a rarity for CDC - did complete bank computing for about 12 small local banks.  A midpoint of the CyberNet system, it interfaced to the Los Angeles Data Center (CDC 6600).  The banking accounts were acquired from Corporation for Economic, Industrial and Operations Research (C.E.I.R) - an IBM system (1401?) which was replaced with the 3300.  This system had 8 or 10 CDC 854 disk drives and connected to a Burroughs model B-3000 magnetic ink character reader (MICR).\n\nEurope \n\nCERN used a CDC 3800 from 1966 until January 1969, when it was replaced by a CDC 6600.  The 3800 was then acquired by State of Geneva and installed at the local University of Geneva.\n\nA number of CDC 3000s were installed in France, either in academic computing centers, in software companies or in the aeronautics, nuclear and oil industries.\n\nThe University of Oslo had a CDC 3300 (1967 - 1976)\n\nOne CDC 3300 was installed in the late 1960s in England, in Computation Research & Development Ltd, a London-based subsidiary of the civil engineering designers Freeman Fox & Partners.  It was used for engineering calculations and commercial computing.  It was de-commissioned in 1974.\n\nThe German Meteorological Service Deutscher Wetterdienst used a CDC 3800 and CDC 3400 for Numerical weather prediction in late 1960s.\n\nOceania \n\nThere were many CDC 3000 series machines in Australia. CSIRO had a 3600 installed in Canberra in 1964, with satellite 3200 machines in Melbourne, Sydney, and probably Brisbane and Adelaide.  The Bureau of Census and Statistics had a 3600, 3300, and a 3500 in Canberra, with a 3200 in each of the six state capitals several of which were upgraded to 3300s about 1970. Monash University had a 3200 delivered in 1964.  Defence Signals Directorate had at least one.  BHP had two 3300 machines at each of its Newcastle and Port Kembla Data centres.  They were replaced by 3500s in 1977, and remained in operation until the mid-1980s.\n\nCommunist bloc \n\nCommunist-ruled Hungary obtained a CDC 3300 machine between 1969 and 1971. It was administered by the National Academy of Sciences throughout the 1970s, mainly for running scientific computations.\n\nOther CDC 3300 systems installed in former Eastern Bloc countries (list not complete):\n Computer research centre Bratislava with contribution of OSN Development program, CRC/UNDP \n Central Statistical Office, Prague.\n Romanian Aircraft, Bucharest (3500 System)\n\nStandard peripherals\n 405 - Card reader. 80 column \'high-speed\' punched card reader\n 415 - Card punch, 80 column card punch\n 501 - Line printer, rotating drum, 136 character wide printer. Note that there were no lower case letters.\n 505 - Line printer\n 512 - Line printer, chain type\n 601 - Magnetic tape drive\n 604 - Magnetic tape drive\n 607 - Magnetic tape drive\n 609 - Magnetic tape drive (9-track)\n 700 series - Optical page reader\n 800 - Rotating magnetic memory series\n 808 - Rotating disks, approx 32 inches per disk, approx 32-36 disks per spindle.\n 852 - Disk drive with removable media pack, 2 to 3 million seven 7-bit characters, six disks (10 recording surfaces)/pack. Data-compatible with IBM 1311\n 853 - Similar to 852, 4 million characters. Media mechanically interchangeable with IBM 1311, but not recorded data\n 854 - Similar to 853, 8 million characters \n 915 - Optical page reader\n\nThe CDC 6000 series were also initially marketed with many of the same peripherals.\n\nSee also\n Punched card input/output\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n "Bizarre Architecture" lecture series at Univ. of Mass. (pdf)\n 3000 series documentation at bitsavers.org\n OS3 documentation at bitsavers.org\n 3000 series brochure at computerhistory.org\n CDC printers/peripherals for sale (Ad,1975: CDC 501,505,512\n\n3000\nControl Data mainframe computers\nTransistorized computers\n24-bit computers\n48-bit computers'},
 {'id': '87231',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance',
  'title': 'Surveillance',
  'text': 'Surveillance is the monitoring of behavior, many activities, or information for the purpose of information gathering, influencing, managing or directing. This can include observation from a distance by means of electronic equipment, such as closed-circuit television (CCTV), or interception of electronically transmitted information like Internet traffic. It can also include simple technical methods, such as human intelligence gathering and postal interception.\n\nSurveillance is used by citizens for protecting their neighborhoods. And by governments for intelligence gathering - including espionage, prevention of crime, the protection of a process, person, group or object, or the investigation of crime. It is also used by criminal organizations to plan and commit crimes, and by businesses to gather intelligence on criminals, their competitors, suppliers or customers. Religious organisations charged with detecting heresy and heterodoxy may also carry out surveillance.\nAuditors carry out a form of surveillance.\n\nA byproduct of surveillance is that it can unjustifiably violate people\'s privacy and is often criticized by civil liberties activists. Liberal democracies may have laws that seek to restrict governmental and private use of surveillance, whereas authoritarian governments seldom have any domestic restrictions. \n\nEspionage is by definition covert and typically illegal according to the rules of the observed party, whereas most types of surveillance are overt and are considered legitimate. International espionage seems to be common among all types of countries.\n\nMethods\n\nComputer\n\nThe vast majority of computer surveillance involves the monitoring of data and traffic on the Internet. In the United States for example, under the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act, all phone calls and broadband Internet traffic (emails, web traffic, instant messaging, etc.) are required to be available for unimpeded real-time monitoring by federal law enforcement agencies.\n\nThere is far too much data on the Internet for human investigators to manually search through all of it. Therefore, automated Internet surveillance computers sift through the vast amount of intercepted Internet traffic to identify and report to human investigators the traffic that is considered interesting or suspicious. This process is regulated by targeting certain "trigger" words or phrases, visiting certain types of web sites, or communicating via email or online chat with suspicious individuals or groups. Billions of dollars per year are spent by agencies, such as the NSA, the FBI and the now-defunct Information Awareness Office, to develop, purchase, implement, and operate systems such as Carnivore, NarusInsight, and ECHELON to intercept and analyze all of this data to extract only the information which is useful to law enforcement and intelligence agencies.\n\nComputers can be a surveillance target because of the personal data stored on them. If someone is able to install software, such as the FBI\'s Magic Lantern and CIPAV, on a computer system, they can easily gain unauthorized access to this data. Such software could be installed physically or remotely. Another form of computer surveillance, known as van Eck phreaking, involves reading electromagnetic emanations from computing devices in order to extract data from them at distances of hundreds of meters. The NSA runs a database known as "Pinwale", which stores and indexes large numbers of emails of both American citizens and foreigners. Additionally, the NSA runs a program known as PRISM, which is a data mining system that gives the United States government direct access to information from technology companies. Through accessing this information, the government is able to obtain search history, emails, stored information, live chats, file transfers, and more. This program generated huge controversies in regards to surveillance and privacy, especially from U.S. citizens.\n\nTelephones\n\nThe official and unofficial tapping of telephone lines is widespread. In the United States for instance, the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act (CALEA) requires that all telephone and VoIP communications be available for real-time wiretapping by Federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies. Two major telecommunications companies in the U.S.—AT&T Inc. and Verizon—have contracts with the FBI, requiring them to keep their phone call records easily searchable and accessible for Federal agencies, in return for $1.8 million per year. Between 2003 and 2005, the FBI sent out more than 140,000 "National Security Letters" ordering phone companies to hand over information about their customers\' calling and Internet histories. About half of these letters requested information on U.S. citizens.\n\nHuman agents are not required to monitor most calls. Speech-to-text software creates machine-readable text from intercepted audio, which is then processed by automated call-analysis programs, such as those developed by agencies such as the Information Awareness Office, or companies such as Verint, and Narus, which search for certain words or phrases, to decide whether to dedicate a human agent to the call.\n\nLaw enforcement and intelligence services in the United Kingdom and the United States possess technology to activate the microphones in cell phones remotely, by accessing phones\' diagnostic or maintenance features in order to listen to conversations that take place near the person who holds the phone.\n\nThe StingRay tracker is an example of one of these tools used to monitor cell phone usage in the United States and the United Kingdom. Originally developed for counterterrorism purposes by the military, they work by broadcasting powerful signals that cause nearby cell phones to transmit their IMSI number, just as they would to normal cell phone towers. Once the phone is connected to the device, there is no way for the user to know that they are being tracked. The operator of the stingray is able to extract information such as location, phone calls, and text messages, but it is widely believed that the capabilities of the StingRay extend much further. A lot of controversy surrounds the StingRay because of its powerful capabilities and the secrecy that surrounds it.\n\nMobile phones are also commonly used to collect location data. The geographical location of a mobile phone (and thus the person carrying it) can be determined easily even when the phone is not being used, using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone. The legality of such techniques has been questioned in the United States, in particular whether a court warrant is required. Records for one carrier alone (Sprint), showed that in a given year federal law enforcement agencies requested customer location data 8 million times.\n\nIn response to customers\' privacy concerns in the post Edward Snowden era, Apple\'s iPhone 6 has been designed to disrupt investigative wiretapping efforts. The phone encrypts e-mails, contacts, and photos with a code generated by a complex mathematical algorithm that is unique to an individual phone, and is inaccessible to Apple. The encryption feature on the iPhone 6 has drawn criticism from FBI director James B. Comey and other law enforcement officials since even lawful requests to access user content on the iPhone 6 will result in Apple supplying "gibberish" data that requires law enforcement personnel to either break the code themselves or to get the code from the phone\'s owner. Because the Snowden leaks demonstrated that American agencies can access phones anywhere in the world, privacy concerns in countries with growing markets for smart phones have intensified, providing a strong incentive for companies like Apple to address those concerns in order to secure their position in the global market.\n\nAlthough the CALEA requires telecommunication companies to build into their systems the ability to carry out a lawful wiretap, the law has not been updated to address the issue of smart phones and requests for access to e-mails and metadata. The Snowden leaks show that the NSA has been taking advantage of this ambiguity in the law by collecting metadata on "at least hundreds of millions" of "incidental" targets from around the world. The NSA uses an analytic tool known as CO-TRAVELER in order to track people whose movements intersect and to find any hidden connections with persons of interest.\n\nThe Snowden leaks have also revealed that the British Government Communications Headquarters (GCHQ) can access information collected by the NSA on American citizens. Once the data has been collected, the GCHQ can hold on to it for up to two years. The deadline can be extended with the permission of a "senior UK official".\n\nCameras\n\nSurveillance cameras, or security cameras, are video cameras used for the purpose of observing an area. They are often connected to a recording device or IP network, and may be watched by a security guard or law enforcement officer. Cameras and recording equipment used to be relatively expensive and required human personnel to monitor camera footage, but analysis of footage has been made easier by automated software that organizes digital video footage into a searchable database, and by video analysis software (such as VIRAT and HumanID). The amount of footage is also drastically reduced by motion sensors which record only when motion is detected. With cheaper production techniques, surveillance cameras are simple and inexpensive enough to be used in home security systems, and for everyday surveillance.\n\nAs of 2016, there are about 350 million surveillance cameras worldwide. About 65% of these cameras are installed in Asia. The growth of CCTV has been slowing in recent years. In 2018, China was reported to have a huge surveillance network of over 170 million CCTV cameras with 400 million new cameras expected to be installed in the next three years, many of which use facial recognition technology.\n\nIn the United States, the Department of Homeland Security awards billions of dollars per year in Homeland Security grants for local, state, and federal agencies to install modern video surveillance equipment. For example, the city of Chicago, Illinois, recently used a $5.1 million Homeland Security grant to install an additional 250 surveillance cameras, and connect them to a centralized monitoring center, along with its preexisting network of over 2000 cameras, in a program known as Operation Virtual Shield. Speaking in 2009, Chicago Mayor Richard Daley announced that Chicago would have a surveillance camera on every street corner by the year 2016. New York City received a $350 million grant towards the development of the Domain Awareness System, which is an interconnected system of sensors including 18,000 CCTV cameras used for continual surveillance of the city by both police officers and artificial intelligence systems.\n\nIn the United Kingdom, the vast majority of video surveillance cameras are not operated by government bodies, but by private individuals or companies, especially to monitor the interiors of shops and businesses. According to 2011 Freedom of Information Act requests, the total number of local government operated CCTV cameras was around 52,000 over the entirety of the UK. The prevalence of video surveillance in the UK is often overstated due to unreliable estimates being requoted; for example one report in 2002 extrapolated from a very small sample to estimate the number of cameras in the UK at 4.2 million (of which 500,000 were in Greater London). More reliable estimates put the number of private and local government operated cameras in the United Kingdom at around 1.85 million in 2011.\n\nIn the Netherlands, one example city where there are cameras is The Hague. There, cameras are placed in city districts in which the most illegal activity is concentrated. Examples are the red-light districts and the train stations.\n\nAs part of China\'s Golden Shield Project, several U.S. corporations, including IBM, General Electric, and Honeywell, have been working closely with the Chinese government to install millions of surveillance cameras throughout China, along with advanced video analytics and facial recognition software, which will identify and track individuals everywhere they go. They will be connected to a centralized database and monitoring station, which will, upon completion of the project, contain a picture of the face of every person in China: over 1.3 billion people. Lin Jiang Huai, the head of China\'s "Information Security Technology" office (which is in charge of the project), credits the surveillance systems in the United States and the U.K. as the inspiration for what he is doing with the Golden Shield Project.\n\nThe Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) is funding a research project called Combat Zones That See that will link up cameras across a city to a centralized monitoring station, identify and track individuals and vehicles as they move through the city, and report "suspicious" activity (such as waving arms, looking side-to-side, standing in a group, etc.).\n\nAt Super Bowl XXXV in January 2001, police in Tampa, Florida, used Identix\'s facial recognition software, FaceIt, to scan the crowd for potential criminals and terrorists in attendance at the event (it found 19 people with pending arrest warrants).\n\nGovernments often initially claim that cameras are meant to be used for traffic control, but many of them end up using them for general surveillance. For example, Washington, D.C. had 5,000 "traffic" cameras installed under this premise, and then after they were all in place, networked them all together and then granted access to the Metropolitan Police Department, so they could perform "day-to-day monitoring".\n\nThe development of centralized networks of CCTV cameras watching public areas – linked to computer databases of people\'s pictures and identity (biometric data), able to track people\'s movements throughout the city, and identify whom they have been with – has been argued by some to present a risk to civil liberties. Trapwire is an example of such a network.\n\nSocial network analysis\n\nOne common form of surveillance is to create maps of social networks based on data from social networking sites such as Facebook, MySpace, Twitter as well as from traffic analysis information from phone call records such as those in the NSA call database, and others. These social network "maps" are then data mined to extract useful information such as personal interests, friendships & affiliations, wants, beliefs, thoughts, and activities.\n\nMany U.S. government agencies such as the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the National Security Agency (NSA), and the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) are investing heavily in research involving social network analysis. The intelligence community believes that the biggest threat to U.S. power comes from decentralized, leaderless, geographically dispersed groups of terrorists, subversives, extremists, and dissidents. These types of threats are most easily countered by finding important nodes in the network, and removing them. To do this requires a detailed map of the network.\n\nJason Ethier of Northeastern University, in his study of modern social network analysis, said the following of the Scalable Social Network Analysis Program developed by the Information Awareness Office:\n\nAT&T developed a programming language called "Hancock", which is able to sift through enormous databases of phone call and Internet traffic records, such as the NSA call database, and extract "communities of interest"—groups of people who call each other regularly, or groups that regularly visit certain sites on the Internet. AT&T originally built the system to develop "marketing leads", but the FBI has regularly requested such information from phone companies such as AT&T without a warrant, and, after using the data, stores all information received in its own databases, regardless of whether or not the information was ever useful in an investigation.\n\nSome people believe that the use of social networking sites is a form of "participatory surveillance", where users of these sites are essentially performing surveillance on themselves, putting detailed personal information on public websites where it can be viewed by corporations and governments. In 2008, about 20% of employers reported using social networking sites to collect personal data on prospective or current employees.\n\nBiometric\n\nBiometric surveillance is a technology that measures and analyzes human physical and/or behavioral characteristics for authentication, identification, or screening purposes. Examples of physical characteristics include fingerprints, DNA, and facial patterns. Examples of mostly behavioral characteristics include gait (a person\'s manner of walking) or voice.\n\nFacial recognition is the use of the unique configuration of a person\'s facial features to accurately identify them, usually from surveillance video. Both the Department of Homeland Security and DARPA are heavily funding research into facial recognition systems. The Information Processing Technology Office ran a program known as Human Identification at a Distance which developed technologies that are capable of identifying a person at up to  by their facial features.\n\nAnother form of behavioral biometrics, based on affective computing, involves computers recognizing a person\'s emotional state based on an analysis of their facial expressions, how fast they are talking, the tone and pitch of their voice, their posture, and other behavioral traits. This might be used for instance to see if a person\'s behavior is suspect (looking around furtively, "tense" or "angry" facial expressions, waving arms, etc.).\n\nA more recent development is DNA profiling, which looks at some of the major markers in the body\'s DNA to produce a match. The FBI is spending $1 billion to build a new biometric database, which will store DNA, facial recognition data, iris/retina (eye) data, fingerprints, palm prints, and other biometric data of people living in the United States. The computers running the database are contained in an underground facility about the size of two American football fields.\n\nThe Los Angeles Police Department is installing automated facial recognition and license plate recognition devices in its squad cars, and providing handheld face scanners, which officers will use to identify people while on patrol.\n\nFacial thermographs are in development, which allow machines to identify certain emotions in people such as fear or stress, by measuring the temperature generated by blood flow to different parts of the face. Law enforcement officers believe that this has potential for them to identify when a suspect is nervous, which might indicate that they are hiding something, lying, or worried about something.\n\nIn his paper in Ethics and Information Technology, Avi Marciano maps the harms caused by biometric surveillance, traces their theoretical origins, and brings these harms together in one integrative framework to elucidate their cumulative power. Marciano proposes four types of harms: Unauthorized use of bodily information, denial or limitation of access to physical spaces, bodily social sorting, and symbolic ineligibility through construction of marginality and otherness. Biometrics\' social power, according to Marciano, derives from three main features: their complexity as "enigmatic technologies", their objective-scientific image, and their increasing agency, particularly in the context of automatic decision-making.\n\nAerial\n\nAerial surveillance is the gathering of surveillance, usually visual imagery or video, from an airborne vehicle—such as an unmanned aerial vehicle, helicopter, or spy plane. Military surveillance aircraft use a range of sensors (e.g. radar) to monitor the battlefield.\n\nDigital imaging technology, miniaturized computers, and numerous other technological advances over the past decade have contributed to rapid advances in aerial surveillance hardware such as micro-aerial vehicles, forward-looking infrared, and high-resolution imagery capable of identifying objects at extremely long distances. For instance, the MQ-9 Reaper, a U.S. drone plane used for domestic operations by the Department of Homeland Security, carries cameras that are capable of identifying an object the size of a milk carton from altitudes of , and has forward-looking infrared devices that can detect the heat from a human body at distances of up to . In an earlier instance of commercial aerial surveillance, the Killington Mountain ski resort hired \'eye in the sky\' aerial photography of its competitors\' parking lots to judge the success of its marketing initiatives as it developed starting in the 1950s.\n\nThe United States Department of Homeland Security is in the process of testing UAVs to patrol the skies over the United States for the purposes of critical infrastructure protection, border patrol, "transit monitoring", and general surveillance of the U.S. population. Miami-Dade police department ran tests with a vertical take-off and landing UAV from Honeywell, which is planned to be used in SWAT operations. Houston\'s police department has been testing fixed-wing UAVs for use in "traffic control".\n\nThe United Kingdom, as well, is working on plans to build up a fleet of surveillance UAVs ranging from micro-aerial vehicles to full-size drones, to be used by police forces throughout the U.K.\n\nIn addition to their surveillance capabilities, MAVs are capable of carrying tasers for "crowd control", or weapons for killing enemy combatants.\n\nPrograms such as the Heterogeneous Aerial Reconnaissance Team program developed by DARPA have automated much of the aerial surveillance process. They have developed systems consisting of large teams drone planes that pilot themselves, automatically decide who is "suspicious" and how to go about monitoring them, coordinate their activities with other drones nearby, and notify human operators if something suspicious is occurring. This greatly increases the amount of area that can be continuously monitored, while reducing the number of human operators required. Thus a swarm of automated, self-directing drones can automatically patrol a city and track suspicious individuals, reporting their activities back to a centralized monitoring station.\nIn addition, researchers also investigate possibilities of autonomous surveillance by large groups of micro aerial vehicles stabilized by decentralized bio-inspired swarming rules.\n\nCorporate\n\nCorporate surveillance is the monitoring of a person or group\'s behavior by a corporation. The data collected is most often used for marketing purposes or sold to other corporations, but is also regularly shared with government agencies. It can be used as a form of business intelligence, which enables the corporation to better tailor their products and/or services to be desirable by their customers. Although there is a common belief that monitoring can increase productivity, it can also create consequences such as increasing chances of deviant behavior and creating punishments that are not equitable to their actions. Additionally, monitoring can cause resistance and backlash because it insinuates an employer\'s suspicion and lack of trust.\n\nData mining and profiling\nData mining is the application of statistical techniques and programmatic algorithms to discover previously unnoticed relationships within the data. Data profiling in this context is the process of assembling information about a particular individual or group in order to generate a profile\xa0— that is, a picture of their patterns and behavior. Data profiling can be an extremely powerful tool for psychological and social network analysis. A skilled analyst can discover facts about a person that they might not even be consciously aware of themselves.\n\nEconomic (such as credit card purchases) and social (such as telephone calls and emails) transactions in modern society create large amounts of stored data and records. In the past, this data was documented in paper records, leaving a "paper trail", or was simply not documented at all. Correlation of paper-based records was a laborious process—it required human intelligence operators to manually dig through documents, which was time-consuming and incomplete, at best.\n\nBut today many of these records are electronic, resulting in an "electronic trail". Every use of a bank machine, payment by credit card, use of a phone card, call from home, checked out library book, rented video, or otherwise complete recorded transaction generates an electronic record. Public records—such as birth, court, tax and other records—are increasingly being digitized and made available online. In addition, due to laws like CALEA, web traffic and online purchases are also available for profiling. Electronic record-keeping makes data easily collectable, storable, and accessible—so that high-volume, efficient aggregation and analysis is possible at significantly lower costs.\n\nInformation relating to many of these individual transactions is often easily available because it is generally not guarded in isolation, since the information, such as the title of a movie a person has rented, might not seem sensitive. However, when many such transactions are aggregated they can be used to assemble a detailed profile revealing the actions, habits, beliefs, locations frequented, social connections, and preferences of the individual. This profile is then used, by programs such as ADVISE and TALON, to determine whether the person is a military, criminal, or political threat.\n\nIn addition to its own aggregation and profiling tools, the government is able to access information from third parties\xa0— for example, banks, credit companies or employers, etc.\xa0— by requesting access informally, by compelling access through the use of subpoenas or other procedures, or by purchasing data from commercial data aggregators or data brokers. The United States has spent $370 million on its 43 planned fusion centers, which are national network of surveillance centers that are located in over 30 states. The centers will collect and analyze vast amounts of data on U.S. citizens. It will get this data by consolidating personal information from sources such as state driver\'s licensing agencies, hospital records, criminal records, school records, credit bureaus, banks, etc. – and placing this information in a centralized database that can be accessed from all of the centers, as well as other federal law enforcement and intelligence agencies.\n\nUnder United States v. Miller (1976), data held by third parties is generally not subject to Fourth Amendment warrant requirements.\n\nHuman operatives\nOrganizations that have enemies who wish to gather information about the groups\' members or activities face the issue of infiltration.\n\nIn addition to operatives\' infiltrating an organization, the surveilling party may exert pressure on certain members of the target organization to act as informants (i.e., to disclose the information they hold on the organization and its members).\n\nFielding operatives is very expensive, and for governments with wide-reaching electronic surveillance tools at their disposal the information recovered from operatives can often be obtained from less problematic forms of surveillance such as those mentioned above. Nevertheless, human infiltrators are still common today. For instance, in 2007 documents surfaced showing that the FBI was planning to field a total of 15,000 undercover agents and informants in response to an anti-terrorism directive sent out by George W. Bush in 2004 that ordered intelligence and law enforcement agencies to increase their HUMINT capabilities.\n\nSatellite imagery\n\nOn May 25, 2007, the U.S. Director of National Intelligence Michael McConnell authorized the National Applications Office (NAO) of the Department of Homeland Security to allow local, state, and domestic Federal agencies to access imagery from military intelligence Reconnaissance satellites and Reconnaissance aircraft sensors which can now be used to observe the activities of U.S. citizens. The satellites and aircraft sensors will be able to penetrate cloud cover, detect chemical traces, and identify objects in buildings and "underground bunkers", and will provide real-time video at much higher resolutions than the still-images produced by programs such as Google Earth.\n\nIdentification and credentials\n\nOne of the simplest forms of identification is the carrying of credentials. Some nations have an identity card system to aid identification, whilst others are considering it but face public opposition. Other documents, such as passports, driver\'s licenses, library cards, banking or credit cards are also used to verify identity.\n\nIf the form of the identity card is "machine-readable", usually using an encoded magnetic stripe or identification number (such as a Social Security number), it corroborates the subject\'s identifying data. In this case it may create an electronic trail when it is checked and scanned, which can be used in profiling, as mentioned above.\n\nWireless Tracking\nThis section refers to methods that involve the monitoring of tracking devices through the aid of wireless signals.\n\nMobile phones\nMobile carrier antennas are also commonly used to collect geolocation data on mobile phones. The geographical location of a powered mobile phone (and thus the person carrying it) can be determined easily (whether it is being used or not), using a technique known as multilateration to calculate the differences in time for a signal to travel from the cell phone to each of several cell towers near the owner of the phone. Dr. Victor Kappeler  of Eastern Kentucky University indicates that police surveillance is a strong concern, stating the following statistics from 2013:\n\nA comparatively new off-the-shelf surveillance device is an IMSI-catcher, a telephone eavesdropping device used to intercept mobile phone traffic and track the movement of mobile phone users. Essentially a "fake" mobile tower acting between the target mobile phone and the service provider\'s real towers, it is considered a man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack. IMSI-catchers are used in some countries by law enforcement and intelligence agencies, but their use has raised significant civil liberty and privacy concerns and is strictly regulated in some countries.\n\nIn March 2020, British daily The Guardian, based on the claims of a whistleblower, accused the government of Saudi Arabia of exploiting global mobile telecom network weaknesses to spy on its citizens traveling around the United States. The data shared by the whistleblower in support of the claims, showed that a systematic spying campaign was being run by the kingdom exploiting the flaws of SS7, a global messaging system. The data showed that millions of secret tracking commands originated from Saudi in a duration of four-months, starting from November 2019.\n\nRFID tagging\n\nRadio Frequency Identification (RFID) tagging is the use of very small electronic devices (called "RFID tags") which are applied to or incorporated into a product, animal, or person for the purpose of identification and tracking using radio waves. The tags can be read from several meters away. They are extremely inexpensive, costing a few cents per piece, so they can be inserted into many types of everyday products without significantly increasing the price, and can be used to track and identify these objects for a variety of purposes.\n\nSome companies appear to be "tagging" their workers by incorporating RFID tags in employee ID badges. Workers in U.K. considered strike action in protest of having themselves tagged; they felt that it was dehumanizing to have all of their movements tracked with RFID chips. Some critics have expressed fears that people will soon be tracked and scanned everywhere they go.  On the other hand, RFID tags in newborn baby ID bracelets put on by hospitals have foiled kidnappings.\n\nIn a 2003 editorial, CNET News.com\'s chief political correspondent, Declan McCullagh, speculated that, soon, every object that is purchased, and perhaps ID cards, will have RFID devices in them, which would respond with information about people as they walk past scanners (what type of phone they have, what type of shoes they have on, which books they are carrying, what credit cards or membership cards they have, etc.). This information could be used for identification, tracking, or targeted marketing. , this has largely not come to pass.\n\nRFID tagging on humans\n\nA human microchip implant is an identifying integrated circuit device or RFID transponder encased in silicate glass and implanted in the body of a human being.  A subdermal implant typically contains a unique ID number that can be linked to information contained in an external database, such as personal identification, medical history, medications, allergies, and contact information.\n\nSeveral types of microchips have been developed in order to control and monitor certain types of people, such as criminals, political figures and spies, a "killer" tracking chip patent was filed at the German Patent and Trademark Office (DPMA) around May 2009.\n\nVerichip is an RFID device produced by a company called Applied Digital Solutions (ADS). Verichip is slightly larger than a grain of rice, and is injected under the skin. The injection reportedly feels similar to receiving a shot. The chip is encased in glass, and stores a "VeriChip Subscriber Number" which the scanner uses to access their personal information, via the Internet, from Verichip Inc.\'s database, the "Global VeriChip Subscriber Registry". Thousands of people have already had them inserted. In Mexico, for example, 160 workers at the Attorney General\'s office were required to have the chip injected for identity verification and access control purposes.\n\nImplantable microchips have also been used in healthcare settings, but ethnographic researchers have identified a number of ethical problems with such uses; these problems include unequal treatment, diminished trust, and possible endangerment of patients.\n\nGeolocation devices\n\nGlobal Positioning System\n\nIn the U.S., police have planted hidden GPS tracking devices in people\'s vehicles to monitor their movements, without a warrant. In early 2009, they were arguing in court that they have the right to do this.\n\nSeveral cities are running pilot projects to require parolees to wear GPS devices to track their movements when they get out of prison.\n\nDevices\n\nCovert listening devices and video devices, or "bugs", are hidden electronic devices which are used to capture, record, and/or transmit data to a receiving party such as a law enforcement agency.\n\nThe U.S. has run numerous domestic intelligence operations, such as COINTELPRO, which have bugged the homes, offices, and vehicles of thousands of U.S. citizens, usually political activists, subversives, and criminals.\n\nLaw enforcement and intelligence services in the U.K. and the United States possess technology to remotely activate the microphones in cell phones, by accessing the phone\'s diagnostic/maintenance features, in order to listen to conversations that take place nearby the person who holds the phone.\n\nPostal services\nAs more people use faxes and e-mail the significance of surveilling the postal system is decreasing, in favor of Internet and telephone surveillance. But interception of post is still an available option for law enforcement and intelligence agencies, in certain circumstances. This is not a common practice, however, and entities like the US Army require high levels of approval to conduct.\n\nThe U.S. Central Intelligence Agency and Federal Bureau of Investigation have performed twelve separate mail-opening campaigns targeted towards U.S. citizens. In one of these programs, more than 215,000 communications were intercepted, opened, and photographed.\n\nStakeout\n\nA stakeout is the coordinated surveillance of a location or person. Stakeouts are generally performed covertly and for the purpose of gathering evidence related to criminal activity. The term derives from the practice by land surveyors of using survey stakes to measure out an area before the main building project begins.\n\nInternet of things\nThe Internet of Things (IoT) is a term that refers to the future of technology in which data can be collected without human and computer interaction. IoTs can be used for identification, monitoring, location tracking, and health tracking. While IoTs have the benefit of being a time-saving tool that makes activities simpler, they raise the concern of government surveillance and privacy regarding how data will be used.\n\nControversy\n\nSupport\n\nSupporters of surveillance systems believe that these tools can help protect society from terrorists and criminals. They argue that surveillance can reduce crime by three means: by deterrence, by observation, and by reconstruction. Surveillance can deter by increasing the chance of being caught, and by revealing the modus operandi. This requires a minimal level of invasiveness.\n\nAnother method on how surveillance can be used to fight criminal activity is by linking the information stream obtained from them to a recognition system (for instance, a camera system that has its feed run through a facial recognition system). This can for instance auto-recognize fugitives and direct police to their location.\n\nA distinction here has to be made however on the type of surveillance employed. Some people that say support video surveillance in city streets may not support indiscriminate telephone taps and vice versa. Besides the types, the way in how this surveillance is done also matters a lot; i.e. indiscriminate telephone taps are supported by much fewer people than say telephone taps done only to people suspected of engaging in illegal activities.\n\nSurveillance can also be used to give human operatives a tactical advantage through improved situational awareness, or through the use of automated processes, i.e. video analytics. Surveillance can help reconstruct an incident and prove guilt through the availability of footage for forensics experts. Surveillance can also influence subjective security if surveillance resources are visible or if the consequences of surveillance can be felt.\n\nSome of the surveillance systems (such as the camera system that has its feed run through a facial recognition system mentioned above) can also have other uses besides countering criminal activity. For instance, it can help on retrieving runaway children, abducted or missing adults and mentally disabled people. \nOther supporters simply believe that there is nothing that can be done about the loss of privacy, and that people must become accustomed to having no privacy. As Sun Microsystems CEO Scott McNealy said: "You have zero privacy anyway. Get over it."\n\nAnother common argument is: "If you aren\'t doing something wrong then you don\'t have anything to fear." Which follows that if one is engaging in unlawful activities, in which case they do not have a legitimate justification for their privacy. However, if they are following the law the surveillance would not affect them.\n\nOpposition\n\nWith the advent of programs such as the Total Information Awareness program and ADVISE, technologies such as high speed surveillance computers and biometrics software, and laws such as the Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act, governments now possess an unprecedented ability to monitor the activities of their subjects. Many civil rights and privacy groups, such as the Electronic Frontier Foundation and American Civil Liberties Union, have expressed concern that by allowing continual increases in government surveillance of citizens we will end up in a mass surveillance society, with extremely limited, or non-existent political and/or personal freedoms. Fears such as this have led to numerous lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T.\n\nSome critics state that the claim made by supporters should be modified to read: "As long as we do what we\'re told, we have nothing to fear.". For instance, a person who is part of a political group which opposes the policies of the national government, might not want the government to know their names and what they have been reading, so that the government cannot easily subvert their organization, arrest, or kill them. Other critics state that while a person might not have anything to hide right now, the government might later implement policies that they do wish to oppose, and that opposition might then be impossible due to mass surveillance enabling the government to identify and remove political threats. Further, other critics point to the fact that most people do have things to hide. For example, if a person is looking for a new job, they might not want their current employer to know this. Also if an employer wishes total privacy to watch over their own employee and secure their financial information it may become impossible, and they may not wish to hire those under surveillance.\n\nIn December 2017, the Government of China took steps to oppose widespread surveillance by security-company cameras, webcams, and IP Cameras after tens-of-thousands were made accessible for internet viewing by IT company Qihoo\n\nTotalitarianism\n\nPrograms such as the Total Information Awareness program, and laws such as the Communications Assistance For Law Enforcement Act have led many groups to fear that society is moving towards a state of mass surveillance with severely limited personal, social, political freedoms, where dissenting individuals or groups will be strategically removed in COINTELPRO-like purges.\n\nKate Martin, of the Center For National Security Studies said of the use of military spy satellites being used to monitor the activities of U.S. citizens: "They are laying the bricks one at a time for a police state."\n\nSome point to the blurring of lines between public and private places, and the privatization of places traditionally seen as public (such as shopping malls and industrial parks) as illustrating the increasing legality of collecting personal information. Traveling through many public places such as government offices is hardly optional for most people, yet consumers have little choice but to submit to companies\' surveillance practices. Surveillance techniques are not created equal; among the many biometric identification technologies, for instance, face recognition requires the least cooperation. Unlike automatic fingerprint reading, which requires an individual to press a finger against a machine, this technique is subtle and requires little to no consent.\n\nPsychological/social effects\n\nSome critics, such as Michel Foucault, believe that in addition to its obvious function of identifying and capturing individuals who are committing undesirable acts, surveillance also functions to create in everyone a feeling of always being watched, so that they become self-policing. This allows the State to control the populace without having to resort to physical force, which is expensive and otherwise problematic.\n\nWith the development of digital technology, individuals have become increasingly perceptible to one another, as surveillance becomes virtual. Online surveillance is the utilization of the internet to observe one\'s activity. Corporations, citizens, and governments participate in tracking others\' behaviours for motivations that arise out of business relations, to curiosity, to legality. In her book Superconnected, Mary Chayko differentiates between two types of surveillance: vertical and horizontal. Vertical surveillance occurs when there is a dominant force, such as the government that is attempting to control or regulate the actions of a given society. Such powerful authorities often justify their incursions as a means to protect society from threats of violence or terrorism. Some individuals question when this becomes an infringement on civil rights.\n\nHorizontal diverges from vertical surveillance as the tracking shifts from an authoritative source to an everyday figure, such as a friend, coworker, or stranger that is interested in one\'s mundane activities. Individuals leave traces of information when they are online that reveal their interests and desires of which others observe. While this can allow people to become interconnected and develop social connections online, it can also increase potential risk to harm, such as cyberbullying or censoring/stalking by strangers, reducing privacy.\n\nIn addition, Simone Browne argues that surveillance wields an immense racializing quality such that it operates as "racializing surveillance." Browne uses racializing surveillance to refer to moments when enactments of surveillance are used to reify boundaries, borders, and bodies along racial lines and where the outcome is discriminatory treatment of those who are negatively racialized by such surveillance. Browne argues racializing surveillance pertains to policing what is "in or out of place."\n\nPrivacy\nNumerous civil rights groups and privacy groups oppose surveillance as a violation of people\'s right to privacy. Such groups include: Electronic Privacy Information Center, Electronic Frontier Foundation, American Civil Liberties Union and Privacy International.\n\nThere have been several lawsuits such as Hepting v. AT&T and EPIC v. Department of Justice by groups or individuals, opposing certain surveillance activities.\n\nLegislative proceedings such as those that took place during the Church Committee, which investigated domestic intelligence programs such as COINTELPRO, have also weighed the pros and cons of surveillance.\n\nCourt cases \n\nPeople vs. Diaz (2011) was a court case in the realm of cell phone privacy, even though the decision was later overturned. In this case, Gregory Diaz was arrested during a sting operation for attempting to sell ecstasy.  During his arrest, police searched Diaz\'s phone and found more incriminating evidence including SMS text messages and photographs depicting illicit activities.  During his trial, Diaz attempted to have the information from his cell phone removed from evidence, but the courts deemed it as lawful and Diaz\'s appeal was denied on the California State Court level and, later, the Supreme Court level.  Just three short years after, this decision was overturned in the case Riley vs. California (2014).\n\nRiley vs. California (2014) was a U.S. Supreme Court case in which a man was arrested for his involvement in a drive-by shooting.  A few days after the shooting the police made an arrest of the suspect (Riley), and, during the arrest, the police searched him.  However, this search was not only of Riley\'s person, but also the police opened and searched his cell phone, finding pictures of other weapons, drugs, and of Riley showing gang signs.  In court, the question arose whether searching the phone was lawful or if the search was protected by the 4th amendment of the constitution.  The decision held that the search of Riley\'s cell phone during the arrest was illegal, and that it was protected by the 4th Amendment.\n\nCountersurveillance, inverse surveillance, sousveillance\nCountersurveillance is the practice of avoiding surveillance or making surveillance difficult. Developments in the late twentieth century have caused counter surveillance to dramatically grow in both scope and complexity, such as the Internet, increasing prevalence of electronic security systems, high-altitude (and possibly armed) UAVs, and large corporate and government computer databases.\n\nInverse surveillance is the practice of the reversal of surveillance on other individuals or groups (e.g., citizens photographing police). Well-known examples include George Holliday\'s recording of the Rodney King beating and the organization Copwatch, which attempts to monitor police officers to prevent police brutality.  Counter-surveillance can be also used in applications to prevent corporate spying, or to track other criminals by certain criminal entities. It can also be used to deter stalking methods used by various entities and organizations.\n\nSousveillance is inverse surveillance, involving the recording by private individuals, rather than government or corporate entities.\n\nPopular culture\n\nIn literature\n George Orwell\'s novel Nineteen Eighty-Four portrays a fictional totalitarian surveillance society with a very simple mass surveillance system consisting of human operatives, informants, and two-way "telescreens" in people\'s homes. Because of the impact of this book, mass-surveillance technologies are commonly called "Orwellian" when they are considered problematic.\n The novel mistrust highlights the negative effects from the overuse of surveillance at Reflection House. The central character Kerryn installs secret cameras to monitor her housemates – see also Paranoia.\n The book The Handmaid\'s Tale, as well as a film and TV series based on it, portray a totalitarian Christian theocracy where all citizens are kept under constant surveillance.\n In the book The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo, Lisbeth Salander uses computers to get information on people, as well as other common surveillance methods, as a freelancer.\n V for Vendetta, a British graphic novel written by Alan Moore\n David Egger\'s novel The Circle exhibits a world where a single company called "The Circle" produces all of the latest and highest quality technologies from computers and smartphones, to surveillance cameras known as "See-Change cameras". This company becomes associated with politics when starting a movement where politicians go "transparent" by wearing See-Change cameras on their body to prevent keeping secrets from the public about their daily work activity. In this society, it becomes mandatory to share personal information and experiences because it is The Circle\'s belief that everyone should have access to all information freely. However, as Eggers illustrates, this takes a toll on the individuals and creates a disruption of power between the governments and the private company. The Circle presents extreme ideologies surrounding mandatory surveillance. Eamon Bailey, one of the Wise Men, or founders of The Circle, believes that possessing the tools to access information about anything or anyone, should be a human right given to all of the world\'s citizens. By eliminating all secrets, any behaviour that has been deemed shameful will either become normalized or no longer considered shocking. Negative actions will eventually be eradicated from society altogether, through the fear of being exposed to other citizens This would be achieved in part by everyone going transparent, something that Bailey highly supports, although it\'s notable that none of the Wise Men ever became transparent themselves. One major goal of The Circle is to have all of the world\'s information filtered through The Circle, a process they call "Completion". A single, private company would then have full access and control over all information and privacy of individuals and governments. Ty Gospodinov, the first founder of The Circle, has major concerns about the completion of the circle. He warns that this step would give The Circle too much power and control, and would quickly lead to totalitarianism.\n\nIn music\n The Dead Kennedys\' song "I Am The Owl" is about government surveillance and social engineering of political groups.\n The Vienna Teng song "Hymn of Acxiom" is about corporate data collection and surveillance.\n\nOnscreen\n\n The film Gattaca portrays a society that uses biometric surveillance to distinguish between people who are genetically engineered "superior" humans and genetically natural "inferior" humans.\n In the movie Minority Report, the police and government intelligence agencies use micro aerial vehicles in SWAT operations and for surveillance purposes.\n HBO\'s crime-drama series The Sopranos regularly portrays the FBI\'s surveillance of the DiMeo Crime Family. Audio devices they use include "bugs" placed in strategic locations (e.g., in "I Dream of Jeannie Cusamano" and "Mr. Ruggerio\'s Neighborhood") and hidden microphones worn by operatives (e.g., in "Rat Pack") and informants (e.g., in "Funhouse", "Proshai, Livushka" and "Members Only"). Visual devices include hidden still cameras (e.g., in "Pax Soprana") and video cameras (e.g., in "Long Term Parking").\n The movie THX-1138 portrays a society wherein people are drugged with sedatives and antidepressants, and have surveillance cameras watching them everywhere they go.\n The movie The Lives of Others portrays the monitoring of East Berlin by agents of the Stasi, the GDR\'s secret police.\n The movie The Conversation portrays many methods of audio surveillance.\n The movie V for Vendetta, a 2005 dystopian political thriller film directed by James McTeigue and written by the Wachowskis, is about British government trying to brainwash people by media, obtain their support by fearmongering, monitor them by mass surveillance devices, and suppress or kill any political or social objection.\n The movie Enemy of the State a 1998 American action-thriller film directed by Tony Scott is about using  U.S. citizens\' data to search their background and surveillance devices to capture everyone that is identified as "enemy".\nThe British TV series The Capture explores the potential for video surveillance to be manipulated in order to support a conviction to pursue a political agenda.\n\nSee also\n Mass surveillance\n Sousveillance \n Surveillance art\n Surveillance capitalism\n Surveillance system monitor\n Trapwire\n Participatory surveillance\n PRISM (surveillance program)\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\n\n Allmer, Thomas. (2012). Towards a Critical Theory of Surveillance in Informational Capitalism. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. \n Andrejevic, Mark. 2007. iSpy: Surveillance and Power in the Interactive Era. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. \n Ball, Kirstie, Kevin D. Haggerty, and David Lyon, eds. (2012). Routledge Handbook of Surveillance Studies. New York: Routledge. \n Brayne, Sarah. (2020). Predict and Surveil: Data, Discretion, and the Future of Policing. New York: Oxford University Press. \n Browne, Simone. (2015). Dark Matters: On the Surveillance of Blackness. Durham: Duke University Press. \n Coleman, Roy, and Michael McCahill. 2011. Surveillance & Crime. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. \n Feldman, Jay. (2011). Manufacturing Hysteria: A History of Scapegoating, Surveillance, and Secrecy in Modern America. New York, NY: Pantheon Books. \n Fuchs, Christian, Kees Boersma, Anders Albrechtslund, and Marisol Sandoval, eds. (2012). "Internet and Surveillance: The Challenges of Web 2.0 and Social Media". New York: Routledge. \n Garfinkel, Simson, Database Nation; The Death of Privacy in the 21st Century. O\'Reilly & Associates, Inc. \n Gilliom, John. (2001). Overseers of the Poor: Surveillance, Resistance, and the Limits of Privacy, University Of Chicago Press, \n Haque, Akhlaque. (2015). Surveillance, Transparency and Democracy: Public Administration in the Information Age. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, AL. \n Harris, Shane. (2011). The Watchers: The Rise of America\'s Surveillance State. London, UK: Penguin Books Ltd. \n Hier, Sean P., & Greenberg, Joshua (Eds.). (2009). Surveillance: Power, Problems, and Politics. Vancouver, CA: UBC Press. \n Jensen, Derrick and Draffan, George (2004) Welcome to the Machine: Science, Surveillance, and the Culture of Control Chelsea Green Publishing Company. \n Lewis, Randolph. (2017). Under Surveillance: Being Watched in Modern America. Austin: University of Texas Press. \n Lyon, David (2001). Surveillance Society: Monitoring in Everyday Life. Philadelphia: Open University Press. \n Lyon, David (Ed.). (2006). Theorizing Surveillance: The Panopticon and Beyond. Cullompton, UK: Willan Publishing. \n Lyon, David (2007) Surveillance Studies: An Overview. Cambridge: Polity Press. \n Matteralt, Armand. (2010). The Globalization of Surveillance. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. \n Monahan, Torin, ed. (2006). Surveillance and Security: Technological Politics and Power in Everyday Life. New York: Routledge. \n Monahan, Torin. (2010). Surveillance in the Time of Insecurity. New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. \n Monahan, Torin, and David Murakami Wood, eds. (2018). Surveillance Studies: A Reader. New York: Oxford University Press. \n Parenti, Christian The Soft Cage: Surveillance in America From Slavery to the War on Terror, Basic Books, \n Petersen, J.K. (2012) Handbook of Surveillance Technologies, Third Edition, Taylor & Francis: CRC Press, 1020 pp., \n Staples, William G. (2000). Everyday Surveillance: Vigilance and Visibility in Post-Modern Life. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.\n\nGeneral information\n  (Volume 66, Number 3, July–August)\n ACLU, "The Surveillance-Industrial Complex: How the American Government Is Conscripting Businesses and Individuals in the Construction of a Surveillance Society"\n Balkin, Jack M. (2008). "The Constitution in the National Surveillance State", Yale Law School\n Bibo, Didier and Delmas-Marty, "The State and Surveillance: Fear and Control"\n EFF Privacy Resources\n EPIC Privacy Resources\n ICO. (September 2006). "A Report on the Surveillance Society for the Information Commissioner by the Surveillance Studies Network".\n Privacy Information Center\n\nHistorical information\n COINTELPRO—FBI counterintelligence programs designed to neutralize political dissidents\n Reversing the Whispering Gallery of Dionysius  – A Short History of Electronic Surveillance in the United States\n\nLegal resources\nEFF Legal Cases\nGuide to lawful intercept legislation around the world\n\nExternal links\n\n \nCrime prevention\nEspionage techniques\nLaw enforcement\nLaw enforcement techniques\nNational security\nPrivacy\nSecurity'},
 {'id': '436008',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mills%20College',
  'title': 'Mills College',
  'text': 'Mills College is a private women\'s liberal arts college in Oakland, California. Mills is an undergraduate women\'s college for women and gender non-binary students with graduate programs for students of all genders. Mills was founded as the Young Ladies Seminary in 1852 in Benicia, California; it was relocated to Oakland in 1871, and became the first women\'s college west of the Rockies. In 2014, Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S. to adopt an admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender students.\n\nMills College offers more than 45 undergraduate majors and minors and over 30 graduate degrees, certificates, and credentials. It is home to the Mills College School of Education and the Lorry I. Lokey School of Business & Public Policy.\n\nIn March 2021, citing financial concerns that were augmented by the pandemic, President Elizabeth L. Hillman announced that Mills College would begin transitioning away from being a degree-granting college in the fall of 2021, instead becoming Mills Institute. The announcement was made to the Mills College alumnae in a letter posted online.\n\nIn June 2021, following interest in merging with UC Berkeley by some Mills College alumnae, the college instead announced that it intended to merge with Northeastern University (a once all-male college that admitted its first female students in 1943) to become Mills College at Northeastern University.\n\nDespite a campaign by Mills College alumnae to stop the controversial merger with Northeastern University and a temporary stay imposed by a judge, the merger was confirmed by the Mills College Board of Trustees on September 14, 2021. President Hillman\'s role in the new Institution has not yet been announced.\n\nMills College alumnae, who have donated a considerable portion of the college\'s endowment, continue to pursue legal options for halting the merger with Northeastern while they fight for financial transparency and a financial rationale for the immediacy of the merger, given the college\'s billions of dollars in assets, including Bay Area real estate, rare books, and a valuable art collection that is housed by the Mills College Art Museum. Uncertainty remains regarding institutional control of Mills College\'s considerable financial assets. No financial details regarding the impending merger have been made public to date.\n\nHistory\n\nMills College was initially founded as the Young Ladies Seminary in the city of Benicia in 1852 under the leadership of Mary Atkins, a graduate of Oberlin College. In 1865, Susan Tolman Mills, a graduate of Mount Holyoke College (then Mount Holyoke Female Seminary), and her husband, Cyrus Mills, bought the Young Ladies Seminary renaming it Mills Seminary. In 1871, the school was moved to its current location in Oakland, California. The school was incorporated in 1877 and was officially renamed Mills College in 1885. In 1890, after serving for decades as principal (under two presidents as well), Susan Mills became the president of the college and held the position for 19 years. Beginning in 1906 the seminary classes were progressively eliminated. In 1920, Mills added graduate programs for women and men, granting its first master\'s degrees the following year.\n\nOther notable milestones in the college\'s history include the presidency of renowned educator and activist Aurelia Henry Reinhardt during World War I and II, the establishment of the first laboratory school west of the Mississippi for aspiring teachers (currently known as the Mills College Children\'s School) in 1926, and becoming the first women\'s college to offer a computer science major (1974).\n\nIn 1990, Mills became the first and only women\'s college in the US to reverse a decision to go coed.  On May 3, 1990, Mills Trustees announced that they had voted to admit male undergraduate students to Mills. This decision led to a two-week student and staff strike, accompanied by numerous displays of non-violent protests by the students. At one point, nearly 300 students blockaded the administrative offices and boycotted classes. On May 18, the Trustees met again to reconsider the decision, leading to a reversal of the vote to go coed on the undergraduate level.\n\nIn 2014, Mills became the first single-sex college in the U.S. to adopt an admission policy explicitly welcoming transgender students. The policy states that undergraduate students who were not assigned to the female sex at birth, but who self-identify as women, are welcome to apply for admission. Undergraduates who were assigned to the female sex at birth, but identify as transgender or gender fluid, are also welcome to apply for admission. The policy further clarifies that undergraduate students assigned to the female sex at birth who have legally become male prior to applying are not eligible for admission to Mills. The policy ends with a statement that "once admitted, any student who completes the College\'s graduate requirements shall be awarded a degree," indicating that once admitted to Mills, an undergraduate female student who changes sex or gender to male will be allowed to complete their degree at the college.\n\nIn 2017, Mills declared a financial emergency because of declining enrollment and revenues, and laid off some tenured faculty. That September, it became the first private college in California to implement a tuition reset, announcing a 36% reduction in its undergraduate tuition beginning in fall 2018, with a goal of making a Mills education more affordable. Undergraduate tuition in the 2018–2019 academic year was $28,765 (reduced from $44,765); room and board costs were $13,448. Students are still able to receive merit scholarships and need-based financial aid in addition to the tuition reduction. For the 2019–2020 academic year, undergraduate tuition was $29,340; room and board costs were $13,883.\n\nOn March 17, 2021, Mills announced that starting in fall 2021 it would transition away from being a degree-granting college. It expects to graduate its last students in 2023 and plans on becoming a research institute called the Mills Institute. In June, the college announced a plan to merge with Northeastern University and become a coeducational institute on the Mills campus. Following protests by many alumnae and in response to a lawsuit by two Mills College trustees, one of them president of the alumnae association, on August 17, 2021, an Alameda County Superior Court judge ruled that the merger must be postponed at minimum until September 3, 2021 and Mills must provide access to its financial statements to substantiate the need for the college to close. The stay was lifted on September 13, and the following day the trustees voted to confirm the merger.\n\nAcademics\n\nUndergraduate academics\n\nAdmissions\n\nAdmission to Mills is selective insofar as it does not admit every applicant but in recent years its acceptance rate hovered around 75%. It characterizes its process as holistic: the Mills admission application process is designed to allow students to share a complete picture of their experiences, passions, activities, and what they hope to achieve, in addition to their academic accomplishments.\nAdmission to Mills is selective insofar as it does not admit every applicant but in recent years its acceptance rate hovered around 75%. It characterizes its process as holistic: the Mills admission application process is designed to allow students to share a complete picture of their experiences, passions, activities, and what they hope to achieve, in addition to their academic accomplishments.\nMost first-year students admitted to Mills have a B+ average and have followed a full college-preparatory course in their secondary school, including 4 years of English, 3 to 4 years of mathematics, 2 to 4 years of foreign languages, 2 to 4 years of social sciences, and 2 to 4 years of a laboratory science. Additional course work in fine arts is given positive consideration, as are special talents or interests. Course credit may be awarded for the College Board Advanced Placement tests and the International Baccalaureate program\'s higher-level examinations. Mills is one of nearly 200 top-tier colleges in the U.S. that have made standardized test scores (SAT or ACT) optional in the admissions process.\n\nMills accepts applications from transfer students and women who have delayed their entrance to college or who wish to continue work on their bachelor\'s degrees. The high school transcript requirement is waived if 24 or more transferable semester units have been completed. For international students, TOEFL, IELTS, or ELS are required to satisfy English language proficiency requirements. Applications should be accompanied by transcripts, a letter of recommendation, and, for international students, language test scores.\n\nAn interview, either on campus or online through Skype or FaceTime, is strongly recommended for all applicants.\n\nIn 2018–19, Mills enrolled students from 41 U.S. states and 15 countries. Of the 766 undergraduate students:\n\n 57% identified themselves as students of color\n 51% identified themselves as LGBTQ+\n 32% were first-generation college students\n 15% were resumer students (23 years of age or older)\n\nMajors, minors, and accelerated degree programs\nMills offers more than 60 undergraduate majors and minors across the arts and sciences. As of the 2017–2018 academic year, the college\'s top 5 majors were: English, psychology, sociology, economics, and biology. To earn a Mills bachelor\'s degree, students complete 120 semester credits (usually 15 credits each semester). Grading is traditional, and a pass-fail option is available outside the major. Mills also offers ten bachelor\'s-to-master\'s accelerated degree programs that allow students to earn a bachelor\'s and a master\'s degree in less time with the goal of increasing their career options.\n\nCore curriculum\nThe core curriculum at Mills is designed to develop students\' analytical, communication, and critical thinking skills; encourage thoughtful creativity and innovation; and create a deep-seated respect for diversity, inclusion, and social justice. The core curriculum consists of 10 specific knowledge and skill areas organized into three outcome categories:\n\n Foundational Skills — critical analysis, information literacy, written and oral communication, and quantitative literacy\n Modes of Inquiry — race, gender, and power; scientific inquiry; language other than English; and international perspectives\n Contributions to knowledge and society — community engaged learning and creativity, innovation, and experimentation\n\nStudents are able to tailor their completion of the core curriculum requirements to their interests by choosing from a wide range of courses that fulfill the 10 knowledge and skill areas.\n\nAccreditation\nMills is accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges (WASC). The college runs on a semester system, with optional winter and summer sessions.\n\nGraduate academics\nMills College offers 34 degrees, credentials, and certifications through their graduate programs, including the Mills College School of Education and the Lorry I. Lokey School of Business and Public Policy. As of the 2018–2019 academic year, the college\'s top 5 graduate programs are: education, pre-medical, MBA, English, and music.\n\nMaster\'s degrees\nMaster\'s degree options at Mills include an MBA; MFAs in studio art, book art, creative writing, and music; MAs in dance, education, English language and literatures, infant mental health, interdisciplinary computer science, and music; a master of applied economics; a master of management; and a master of public policy (MPP).\n\nJoint degrees, doctorate degrees and credentials\nMills also offers a joint MPP/MBA degree and a joint MBA/MA in educational leadership degree. The joint MPP/MBA provides graduates with the training to handle the evolving demand of professionals with cross-sector competencies who are trained in the logic of government agencies, nonprofit organizations, and social or business enterprises, as well as the intersection of these sectors. The joint MBA/MA in educational leadership is specifically designed to prepare educational leaders and managers for success by giving them knowledge of the educational process and dynamics, and strategic business and management skills, to help them confront the complex challenges of the rapidly changing educational landscape.\n\nThe Mills College School of Education offers a doctorate program in educational leadership and preparation for multiple- and single-subject teaching credentials, administrative services credentials, and other state-issued credentials in the field of education.\n\nPost-baccalaureate certificates\nThe college also offers post-baccalaureate certificate programs in pre-med, biochemistry, and computer science. These programs are designed for students who previously have earned a bachelor\'s degree, but are now interested in pursuing degrees or careers in fields not covered by their undergraduate degree. Graduates of Mills\' Post-Baccalaureate Pre-Medical Program have an 80%+ acceptance rate to medical schools (compared to the national average of 50%). Students who complete the Post-Bac Pre-Med Program and are interested in pursuing laboratory science instead of medical school can complete the biochemistry and molecular biology certificate with one additional year of course work. The Post-Baccalaureate Computer Science Certificate Program has no programming or math prerequisites, allowing students to continue on to the MA in interdisciplinary computer science with an undergraduate background in a non-computer science related field.\n\nMills graduate students have access to on-campus housing and the same campus facilities as undergraduate students, including the Betty Irene Moore Natural Sciences Building, Center for Contemporary Music, the Heller Rare Books Room, Lorry I. Lokey School of Business & Public Policy building, and the Mills College Children\'s School.\n\nFaculty\nNotable Mills faculty include renowned book artists Kathy Walkup and Julie Chen; choreographer and performer Molissa Fenley; experimental musicians/composers/performers Maggi Payne, Chris Brown, Fred Frith, Roscoe Mitchell; Y.A. author Kathryn Reiss; poet and editor Juliana Spahr; computer scientist Ellen Spertus; and artist/photographer Catherine Wagner. Nearly 75% of Mills faculty hold the highest degrees in their field; approximately 70% are women, and over one-third are faculty of color. Mills faculty from all areas of study work closely with undergraduate and graduate students, collaborating on scientific research, art preservation, academic papers, and journal articles.\n\nFinancial aid\nIn the 2018–2019 academic year, more than 80 percent of incoming Mills students received some form of financial aid. For undergraduates, the college offers a variety of merit- and need-based scholarships that can total up to $10,000 for first-year students and transfer students. Additional aid is available through federal and state grants, private scholarships, loans, and work-study opportunities. For graduate students, Mills offers scholarships, assistantships, and fellowships customized to each graduate program. The college also offers access to low-interest graduate student loans from the federal government.\n\nTo be considered for government aid and need-based Mills scholarships, students must file the Free Application for Federal Student Aid (FAFSA) by the appropriate deadline. California residents must also file the Cal Grant GPA Verification Form to be considered for a Cal Grant.\n\nTuition reduction for undergraduate students\nIn September 2017, Mills became the first private college in California to implement a tuition reset, substantially reducing the cost of its undergraduate education. The college reduced its undergraduate tuition by 36% (beginning in fall 2018) with a goal of making a Mills education more affordable for more students. Undergraduate tuition in the 2018–2019 academic year was $28,765 (reduced from $44,765); room and board costs were $13,448. Students are still able to receive merit scholarships and need-based financial aid in addition to the tuition reduction. For the 2019–2020 academic year, undergraduate tuition was $29,340; room and board costs were $13,883.\n\nRankings\n\nFor 2021, U.S. News & World Report ranked Mills in the following "Best Regional Universities West" categories:\n No. 1 in Best Value Schools\n No. 1 in Best Undergraduate Teaching\n No. 8 in Most Innovative Schools (tied)\n No. 12 in Regional Universities West\n No. 13 in Top Performers on Social Mobility (tied)\n\nFor 2021, The Princeton Review included Mills in the following lists and ranked Mills in the following categories:\n The Best 386 Colleges\n Best Western (regional colleges)\n Green Colleges\n No. 9 for Administrators Get Low Marks\n No. 13 Most Liberal Students\n No. 14 LGBTQ-Friendly\n No. 15 for Stone-Cold Sober Students\n No. 20 for Least Religious Students\n\nIn 2020, Washington Monthly ranked Mills sixth out of 614 schools on its Master\'s Universities list, based on its contribution to the public good as measured by social mobility, research, and promoting public service.\n\nIn 2019, Forbes included Mills as one of the 650 best schools in the United States out of a possible 4,300 degree-granting postsecondary institutions. Forbes ranked Mills as follows:\nNo. 343 in Top Colleges 2019\nNo. 227 in Private Colleges\nNo. 70 in the West\n\nStudent life\n\nStudent body demographics\n\nFor the 2018–19 academic year, Mills student body included 1,255 students, with 766 undergraduate women and 489 graduate students of all genders. Forty-one states are represented in the student body, and international students from 15 different countries attend the college. The average class size at Mills is 16 students, with a student:faculty ratio of 11:1. The average class size at Mills is small, with 76% of Mills classes having 20 students or less.\n\nFifty-six percent of the undergraduate students self-identify as students of color or multi-racial. Sixteen percent of the undergraduate population are "Resumer" students who are 23 years or older and returning to college. Over half of Mills Undergraduates live on-campus in any of the twelve housing options offered by the college.\n\nForty-one percent of the graduate students self-identify as students of color or multi-racial. Of the graduate student body, eighty-six percent are full-time students. Over three-quarters of Graduate students commute to campus with only thirteen percent opting to live on-campus.\n\nAthletics\nMills College teams participate as a member of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) Division III. The Cyclones are a member of the Coast to Coast Athletic Conference (C2C). Women\'s sports include: Cross country, Rowing, Soccer, Swimming, Tennis, and Volleyball. All students are welcome to join the sports teams. The Mills swim team was awarded the Scholar All-America Team award for swimming and diving teams who have achieved a cumulative grade point average of 3.0 or higher. The athletics, physical education, and recreation facilities are housed within Haas Pavilion.\n\nThe Trefethan Aquatics Center features an Olympic-size outdoor swimming pool. Trefethen is accessible to students, faculty, staff, and immediate family free of charge, and is also open for public use at a small fee.\n\nMills\' Tennis Center features six lighted courts and is used for recreation, events, and competitions. The tennis team also hosts a Family Day every year to promote interaction with the community.\n\nThe campus houses a Fitness Center, inside Haas Pavilion, for student, faculty and staff use. Athletics also maintains the Hellman Soccer Field and track, as well as Pine Top Trail which runs the circumference of campus.\n\nStudent clubs and organizations\nThere are more than 50 student organizations at Mills run by both undergraduate and graduate students. These groups host campus-wide art exhibitions, dance performances, concerts, and lectures, as well as annual events such as Black & White Ball, Earth Day Fair, and Spring Fling.\n\nStudents also participate in the Associated Students of Mills College (ASMC), an executive board of elected and appointed positions. Under the governance of a student-drafted Constitution, the board manages and disburses an annual budget that supports more than 50 student organizations, student publications, campus-wide events, and various student initiatives. ASMC is the voice of the student body to the college administration.\n\nMills\' undergraduate student publications include the Campanil, an award-winning campus newspaper and the voice of Mills students. It has won the top journalism award in its division for general newspaper excellence from the California College Media Association and has also been honored in editorial, news, entertainment and photography categories. The Crest is the Mills College yearbook which has run for 95 years. In 2010 Mills published the first annual Mills Academic Research Journal (MARJ) which focuses on research on the Mills College campus. The college also supports The Walrus Literary Journal an annual publication which includes "wonderful, whacky, weird, witty, and whimsical poetry, prose, and art from the Bay Area and beyond. Another annual literary journal on-campus is the Womanist, A Women of Color Journal which features prose, poetry, and artwork by students, alumnae, faculty, and staff of color. The publication is compiled and edited by a group of Mills students.\n\nGraduate students also create the 580 Split, an annual journal of arts and literature, publishes innovative and experimental prose, poetry, and art and was founded specifically for graduate students to participate and hone skills in editing, publishing, and creative writing. The journal has expanded its presence in the Bay Area and can be found in such well-known bookstores as City Lights. It is also one of the few literary journals carried by the Oakland Public Library.\n\nCampus\nThe  Mills College campus is located in the foothills of Oakland, California, on the eastern shore of the San Francisco Bay.\n\nCampus facilities\n\nBetty Irene Moore Natural Sciences Building\n\nCompleted in 2007, the Natural Sciences Building was the first Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) "green" building at Mills. The facility met the most rigorous standards for materials selection, energy consumption, and water usage and was awarded platinum certification. Specifically designed to bring together the fields of biology, chemistry, physics, and psychology, Moore Natural Sciences Building encourages collaboration and research across disciplines. The building features state of the art equipment including: the Scheffler Bio-Imaging Center which contains a transilluminating fluorescence microscope with digital camera and imaging software, walk-in warm and cold rooms, and a marine culture system. The building\'s instrumentation includes: an atomic absorption spectrophotometer, a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer, a Fourier transform nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometer, ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometers, an electrochemistry apparatus, high-performance liquid chromatographs, gas-liquid chromatographs, and standard low-speed and high-speed ultracentrifuges as well as numerous smaller instruments\n\nThe science facility offers a wide variety of classroom, laboratory, and research space equipped with up-to-date instrumentation, special outdoor teaching courtyards, and is located adjacent to the William Joseph McInnes Botanic Garden for hands-on research and study.\n\nCenter for Contemporary Music\nThe San Francisco Tape Music Center moved to Mills Campus in 1966, became the Mills Tape Music Center, and was later renamed the Center for Contemporary Music (CCM). The CCM\'s archives contains over 50 years of collected recordings made at the San Francisco Tape Music Center and at Mills. CCM internationally renowned as a leading center for innovation in music, and functions as an important resource center for Bay Area composers and artists. Its facilities feature a 24-track recording studio, hybrid computer music studio, electronic music studio, dubbing and editing studio, technical and project development lab, Studio V, and the musicianship lab.\n\nHoused within the Mills Music Building since 1966, CCM has emphasized experimental methods in contemporary music and its allied arts and sciences. CCM maintains a variety of electronic equipment, instruments and studios, provides instruction and technical assistance, and archives audio recordings. The center also performs a wide variety of community services in the arts, including public concerts and lecture series, informational and technical assistance, and artist residencies. Maggi Payne and Chris Brown are presently co-directors of CCM. Payne is a composer, performer, interdisciplinary artist, and recording engineer. Brown is an instrument builder, a pianist, and a composer.\n\nThe music program at Mills is noted for being at the forefront of experimental music study and composition. Well-known composer Luciano Berio was on the music faculty of Mills in 1962–1964, and in 1966 Pauline Oliveros became the first director of the Tape Music Center (later the Center for Contemporary Music), where she composed her electronic works "Alien Bog" and "Beautiful Soop". Morton Subotnick, later a member of the faculty, received his master\'s degree from Mills, studying composition with Leon Kirchner and Darius Milhaud. Laurie Anderson, Dave Brubeck, Joanna Newsom, Phil Lesh, Noah Georgeson, Holly Herndon, and Steve Reich attended the program, as well as the famous synthesizer designer Don Buchla. Terry Riley taught at Mills starting in the early 1970s. Avant-garde jazz pioneer Anthony Braxton has taught at Mills on an intermittent basis since the 1970s. Lou Harrison, Pandit Pran Nath, Iannis Xenakis, Alvin Curran, Gordon Mumma, Maggi Payne, Pauline Oliveros, Frederic Rzewski, Zeena Parkins, Fred Frith, and many others have all taught music at Mills.\n\nF.W. Olin Library\n\nThe F.W. Olin Library houses a collection of over 240,000 volumes and other media, with special emphasis on literature, history, women\'s studies, art and music. It also offers access to more than 60 online databases including: Academic Search, LexisNexis, PsycINFO, Sociological Abstracts, MEDLINE, ERIC, MLA Bibliography, Contemporary Women\'s Issues, Britannica Online, Biography Resource Center, and Science Direct, and many more. The library includes 280 study and workstations, a listening-viewing room with fully equipped audio-visual stations, and a seminar room. Open 88.5 hours a week, the library\'s online catalog, MINERVA, is accessible throughout the library and via the internet.\n\nThe Special Collections is housed within the library in the Heller Rare Book Room and includes printed books from the 15th century to the present, as well as the Mills College Collection. Containing 12,000 volumes and 10,000 manuscripts, Special Collections features a leaf from a Gutenberg Bible and a Florentine edition of Dante\'s La divina commedia. It is also home to the Mills Center for the Book, a forum for cultural, literary, and aesthetic heritage of the book. In October 2020 the college sold its copy of Shakespeare\'s First Folio from 1623 for $9.9 million to make up for revenue shortfalls.\n\nMills is also home to the Center for the Book which was established in 1989 to promote the cultural, literary, and aesthetic heritage of the book. Programs and projects encompass contemporary and historical concerns, and include the book arts, literacy, and local history. The Center for the Book involves both Mills College and the local communities, acknowledging the extraordinarily rich resources of the Bay Area.\n\nLorry I. Lokey Graduate of Business and Public Policy Building\nCompleted in 2010, the Graduate School of Business building is a Gold LEED certified building. The Lokey School\'s focus on social responsibility leads to the cultivation of an integrative perspective across disciplines and functional areas of business and to build partnerships with organizations that share similar values.\n\nThe school\'s first student-run policy journal, The Policy Forum at Mills, was successfully launched in 2013, and provides a forum for policy solutions and analysis to its students, as well as allowing for discourse on published issues.\n\nMills College Art Museum\nOpen to the public, the Mills College Art Museum is home to a collection of more than 8,000 works of art—the largest permanent collection of any liberal arts college on the West Coast. The collection includes old masters and modern American and European prints and drawings; Asian textiles; Japanese, Ancient American, and modern ceramics; and California regionalist paintings.\n\nWorks from the permanent collection—including pieces by Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Winslow Homer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Henri Matisse, and Auguste Renoir—are displayed with an ever-changing series of special exhibitions that are designed to provoke, inspire, and even amuse. Mills students have an opportunity to get involved in every aspect of the museum\'s work, including archival research, editing, photography, design, and installations. Undergraduates train to become curators, putting together exhibitions with art from the collection. Every year art students also take on the management of the Senior and MFA exhibitions.\n\nMills College Children\'s School\n\nFounded in 1926 on the Mills campus, the Children\'s School is the oldest laboratory school west of the Mississippi River. From its inception, the Children\'s School has had the dual mission of providing quality education for both children and adults. A member of the East Bay Independent Schools Association, the Children\'s School is open to the children of Mills students, faculty, and staff as well as the general public.\n\nSince 2000 the Children\'s School has been housed in the Education Complex on campus. The facility includes generous spaces for an infant/toddler program, two preschool programs, and a kindergarten through fifth grade elementary school, each with age-appropriate playgrounds and structures.\n\nUndergraduate students majoring or minoring in child development, as well as graduate education students, have the unique opportunity of using the classroom for research and study under the guidance of master teachers with graduate degrees, professional credentials, and years of experience.\n\nMills College School of Education\nThe School of Education houses the Mills College Children\'s School which opened in 1926 to provide students with opportunities to learn about child behavior and cognitive development. It was the first laboratory school on the West Coast. Today, the school offers programs for infants through fifth graders, and provides Mills students with the opportunity to study progressive educational practices that focus on the whole child. In the Children\'s School classrooms, Mills students observe developmentally, culturally, and linguistically responsive teaching, as well as a constructivist model of classroom learning and the integration of theory and practice. The Children\'s School has a dual mission of providing high-quality education to the approximately 135 students in its infant, preschool, and K–5 programs, as well as offering a collaborative research setting for undergraduate and graduate education students.\n\nPrograms in early childhood education, educational leadership, and teacher education are housed in the School of Education and utilize the Children\'s School.\n\nCampus housing\nTen on-campus living options are available at Mills, including traditional residence halls, a housing cooperative, family housing, and apartment living. Traditional-age, first-year students are introduced to the Mills community through a Themed Housing Community that is organized around a shared interest. Over the course of the fall term, faculty, students, and a specially assigned member of the Division of Student Life may attend lectures, films, museum exhibitions, or other extracurricular activities related to the central theme of their community. Transfer, resumer, graduate, and continuing Mills students reside in one of the six historic Mediterranean-inspired Residence Halls or three Craftsman-style apartment complexes.\n\nWarren Olney Hall\nNamed for Oakland Mayor and Mills College Trustee (1886–1921) Warren Olney, Warren Olney Hall houses students of all academic levels. Built by Bakewell and Brown, a well-known architectural firm in the early 1900s, they designed the structure in a Beaux Arts Mediterranean style. The building is three-stories, wood frame, stucco exterior with a Spanish tile roof. All of the rooms are either Single or Double rooms with hardwood floors and a sink, some of which feature California sleeping porches. The residence hall contains multiple common rooms, a computer lab, and full disability access.\n\nOrchard Meadow Hall\nBuilt at the turn of the century, Orchard Meadow residence hall houses mostly first-year students and consists of two separate wings, all students are housed in either Single or Double rooms with hardwood floors or carpets and a sink. Connected by a large living room with paneled oak walls and tile floors, the wings share a meeting room and a computer lab. Orchard Meadow also features multiple rooms with sleeping porches. This building also features two libraries with antique furniture and disability access. The residence hall shares a courtyard with a small reflecting pond and brick barbeque with Warren Olney.\n\nEthel Moore Hall\nDesigned in a Mediterranean-style with red tile roof and blue trim, Ethel Moore Hall—which houses juniors, seniors, and graduate students. Located atop Prospect Hill, Ethel Moore was built in the late-1920s/early-1930s by Walter H Ratcliffe Jr. The flagstone entrance to Ethel Moore Hall connects to a downhill path into the center of campus. Ethel Moore also opens onto the Rhododendron Courtyard which is shared with Mary Morse and accessed through the building or through a garden gate. The newly renovated Olive Courtyard is accessed through the lobby. The building contains Single and Double rooms with hardwood floors and a sink, a computer lab, and antique furnishings in the common spaces.\n\nMary Morse Hall\nAlso built by Walter H Ratcliffe Jr. in 1935, Mary Morse offers housing to both undergraduate and graduate students. From its location atop Prospect Hill, students look out upon the Rhododendron Courtyard shared with Ethel Moore. The building is seporated into two wings and features single or double rooms with hardwood or carpeted floors and a sink, a large stone fireplace in the living room, a community sun room, antique furnishings in the common areas, and a computer lab.\n\nLynn Townsend White Hall\nNamed for former Mills College President Lynn T. White, Jr., this residence hall offers housing to both undergraduate and graduate students. The building has three wings, with an open design with modern-style furnishings and a spacious recreation room. Students have the option of living in single or double rooms (some in suites featuring one double and two single rooms) or two-bedroom suites with private bathrooms and shared kitchenette, living room, and bathroom. Each wing has its own common space in addition to the recreation room, and a computer lab is also located in the building.\n\nCampus history\n\nMills Hall\n\nDesigned in 1869 by S. C. Bugbee & Son, Mills Hall became the college\'s new home when it moved from Benicia to Oakland in 1871. Mills Hall is "a long, four-story building with a high central observatory. The mansarded structure, which provided homes for faculty and students as well as classrooms and dining halls, long was considered the most beautiful educational building in the state". Mills Hall is a California Historical Landmark and is listed in the National Register of Historic Places.\n\nJulia Morgan Buildings\nIn 1904, Mills president Susan Mills became interested in architect Julia Morgan because she wished to further the career of a female architect, and because Morgan, just beginning her career, charged less than her male counterparts. Morgan designed six buildings for the Mills campus, including El Campanil, believed to be the first freestanding bell tower on a United States college campus. El Campanil consists of 72 feet of reinforced concrete in a Spanish Mission-style and resides in front of Seminary Hall. The bell tower has a low pitched red tile roof and seven arched openings for the ten bells. The nails and lock of the large wooden door to El Campanil come from an old Spanish church in Mexico. Morgan\'s reputation grew when the tower was unscathed by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. The bells in the tower "were cast for the World\'s Columbian Exposition (Chicago-1893), and given to Mills by a trustee". The ten bells were name after the graces of the spirit to emphasize the school\'s commitment to the Christian mission; Faith, Hope, Peace, Joy, Love, Meekness, Gentleness, Self Control, Longing, Suffering. Surrounding the structure are southern California flora adorn earthenware jars that Morgan designed in the style of those at the Alhambra.\n\nThe Margaret Carnegie Library (1906), which was named after Andrew Carnegie\'s daughter. The Ming Quong Home for Chinese girls, built in 1924 and purchased by Mills in 1936, which was renamed Alderwood Hall and now houses the Julia Morgan School for Girls (independent of the college). She designed the Student Union in 1916. Kapiolani Cottage, which has served as an infirmary, faculty housing, and administration offices. And finally, Mills\'s original gymnasium and pool, which have been replaced by the Tea Shop and Suzanne Adams Plaza.\n\nArt museum\nOpen to the public, the Mills College Art Museum is home to a collection of more than 8,000 works of art—the largest permanent collection of any liberal arts college on the West Coast. The collection includes old masters and modern American and European prints and drawings; Asian textiles; Japanese, Ancient American, and modern ceramics; and California regionalist paintings. In 2005, Dr. William K. Ehrenfeld donated a collection of more than 800 pieces of African art, primarily from West Africa with an emphasis on art of the Yoruba.\n\nWorks from the permanent collection—including pieces by Pablo Picasso, Diego Rivera, Winslow Homer, Rembrandt van Rijn, Henri Matisse, and Auguste Renoir—are displayed with an ever-changing series of special exhibitions that are designed to provoke, inspire, and even amuse. Students have an opportunity to get involved in every aspect of the museum\'s work: archival research, editing, photography, design, and installations. Undergraduates train to become curators and put together over six exhibitions with art from the collection. Every year art students also take on the management of the Senior and MFA exhibitions.\n\nNatural Sciences Building\nIn spring 2007, Mills will open its new  Natural Sciences Building. The facility features four new teaching laboratories, five new classrooms, a computer room for students, and centralized science faculty offices. Up-to-date instrumentation and leading-edge computing resources will support the academic programs. The addition will become the first building on the Mills campus to meet rigorous national standards as a Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) "green building."\n\nChildren\'s School\nFounded in 1926 on the Mills College campus, the Children\'s School is the oldest laboratory school west of the Mississippi River. From its inception, the School has had the dual mission of providing quality education for both children and adults. A member of the East Bay Independent Schools Association, the Children\'s School is open to the children of Mills students, faculty, and staff as well as the general public.\n\nSince 2000 the Children\'s School has been housed in the Education Complex of the campus. The state-of-the-art facility includes an infant/toddler program, two preschool programs offering several scheduling options, and a kindergarten through fifth grade elementary school, each with age-appropriate playgrounds and structures.\n\nUndergraduate students majoring or minoring in child development, as well as graduate education students, have the unique opportunity of using the classroom for research and study under the guidance of master teachers with graduate degrees, professional credentials, and years of experience.\n\nAlso housed on campus are the English First International Language School, a Greek theatre, and many other attractions. Its main route of entry, Richards Road, is included in The 100 Most Beautiful Streets of America.\n\nNotable people\n\nSee also\nList of Mills College honorary degree recipients\nWilliam Joseph McInnes Botanic Garden and Campus Arboretum\nWomen\'s colleges in the United States#20th-century history\n\nReferences\n Horowitz, Helen Lefkowitz. Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women\'s Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1993 (2nd edition).\n\nFootnotes\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Photographs of Mills College, ca. 1940, The Bancroft Library\n\n \nBenicia, California\nEducational institutions established in 1885\nEducation in Oakland, California\nUniversities and colleges in Alameda County, California\nWomen\'s universities and colleges in the United States\nLiberal arts colleges in California\nSchool buildings on the National Register of Historic Places in California\nNational Register of Historic Places in Oakland, California\nSchools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges\nJulia Morgan buildings\nMediterranean Revival architecture in California\nAmerican Craftsman architecture in California\nWomen in California\nPrivate universities and colleges in California\n1885 establishments in California\nNortheastern University'},
 {'id': '43648345',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20P.%20Goldberg',
  'title': 'Robert P. Goldberg',
  'text': 'Robert P. Goldberg (December 4, 1944 – February 25, 1994) was an American computer scientist, known for his research on operating systems and virtualization.\n\nWith Gerald J. Popek he proposed the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, a set of conditions necessary for a computer architecture to support system virtualization.\nIn his Ph.D. thesis "Architectural Principles for Virtual Computer Systems" he also invented the classification for Hypervisors which is now widely adopted in the area of virtual computer systems and computer science in general.\n\nBiography\nDr. Goldberg was born in Brooklyn, New York City, in 1944. He received the B.S. degree in Mathematics from MIT in 1965 and the MA and Ph.D. degrees in Applied Mathematics from Harvard University, in 1969 and 1973, respectively.\n\nIn his Ph.D. thesis "Architectural Principles for Virtual Computer Systems" published 1974 he invented the classification for Hypervisors which is now widely adopted in the area of virtual computer systems and computer science in general.\nIn 1974 with Gerald J. Popek he proposed the Popek and Goldberg virtualization requirements, a set of conditions necessary for a computer architecture to support system virtualization.\n\nFrom 1966 to 1972 he was a member of the research staff at MIT, first at Lincoln Laboratories and then at Project MAC. From 1971 to 1972, Dr. Goldberg served as a consultant to the Director of Engineering at Honeywell\'s Boston Computer Operations.\n\nHis teaching experience included lectureships at Brandeis University and Northeastern University.\nDr. Goldberg was a member of ACM. He was the organizer of the Virtual Machine session at the 1973 National Computer Conference, was the Program Chairman and Proceedings Editor for the ACM SIGARCH-SIGOPS Workshop on Virtual Computer Systems, 1973 and has written and lectured extensively on many different aspects of virtual machine systems.\n\nDr. Goldberg was a member of the Honeywell Information Systems Technical Office in Waltham, MA and also a Lecturer on Computer Science at Harvard University. His research interest included computer architectures, operating system design and evaluation, and data management systems at that time.\n\n1978 Dr. Goldberg filed a patent under the name "Hardware virtualizer for supporting recursive virtual computer systems on a host computer system" (Patent Nr. 4253145) which was accepted 1981 and is held by  Honeywell Information Systems Inc.\n\nIn 1975 Dr. Goldberg together with Dr. Jeffrey Buzen and Dr. Harold Schwenk (whose last names are represented in the initials of the company) founded a company called "BGS Systems, Inc."  in the basement of Buzen\'s Lexington, Mass. home. Over the next fifteen years, it moved five times, but always within Waltham, Mass.\n\nThe company set out to develop products that provided centralized capacity management and planning capabilities for all major computing platforms. In addition BGS created products that managed and evaluated computing systems such as UNIX, MVS, VM, OpenVMS, and the AS/400 as well as OS/2 and Windows NT. By the early 1980s the company could claim over 30,000 installations worldwide with its BEST/1 product. This software, which was based on queuing theory, was devised by the three founders and promoted by the company as being the de facto standard for capacity management and planning in heterogeneous distributed environments. (1998 BGS Systems was acquired by BMC Software, Inc. The transaction was valued at approximately $285 million.)\n\nDeath and afterward\nGoldberg died on 25 February 1994 in Boston, at the age of 49, after suffering from cancer.\n\nPublished works\n Goldberg, Robert P., Architectural Principles for Virtual Computer Systems. Ph.D. thesis, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, 1972.\n Goldberg, Robert P., Survey of Virtual Machine Research, Honeywell Information Systems and Harvard University, 1974.\n\nReferences\n\n1944 births\n1994 deaths\nAmerican computer businesspeople\nAmerican computer scientists\nHarvard University faculty\nHarvard University alumni\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science alumni'}]

def term_frequency_query(query: str, n: int):
    terms = query.split()
    # Rank documents by term frequency and return top N
    ranked_docs = sorted(
        nuwiki,
        key=lambda doc: sum(term_frequency(term, doc['text']) for term in terms),
        reverse=True
    )
    return ranked_docs[:n]

term_frequency_query("Northeastern computer science", 3)

[{'id': '27792666',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoury%20College%20of%20Computer%20Sciences',
  'title': 'Khoury College of Computer Sciences',
  'text': 'The Khoury College of Computer Sciences is the computer science school of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science when it was founded in 1982.  It addition to computer science, it specializes in data science and cybersecurity. The college was also among the first to offer an information assurance degree program. \n\nKhoury College offers Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Master of Science (M.S.) and doctoral degrees in computer science, as well as undergraduate and graduate degrees in interdisciplinary, computer-related fields. Some 1,000 master\'s and 133 doctoral candidates are enrolled in the college.\n\nHistory\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Northeastern University made about 38 program and curriculum changes to improve the university. Between 1979 and 1981, Northeastern organized a blue-ribbon panel of educators and experts, including industry leaders from Bell Labs, University of California, Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Digital Equipment Corporation, to develop a plan to advance education and research in the emerging field of computer science. In 1982, Northeastern formally established the College of Computer Science (CCS), the first U.S. college devoted to computer science and the first new college at Northeastern in 17 years. Paul Kalaghan, director of Academic Computer Services, was named its first dean. The college was initially housed in Knowles-Volpe Hall, now known as the Asa S. Knowles Center, with 11 faculty members and 239 first-year students. Graduate degree programs were added in 1984. A year later, the college moved into the former Botolph Building, one of the oldest structures on campus, which reopened as the David and Margaret Fitzgerald Cullinane Hall. At the end of 1987, the CCS proposed the Law of Demeter, which was widely used in software development area. In 2004, the college moved into the newly constructed West Village H building, which consists of a six-story building and a 16-story tower containing the Khoury College of Computer Science and on-campus housing for 485 students.\n\nNaming donation\n\nOn December 16, 2018, Northeastern University announced a $50 million gift from alumnus and board trustee, Amin Khoury, in order to "support all aspects of the college\'s future focus." In return, the College of Computer and Information Science was renamed the Khoury College of Computer Sciences.\n\nNortheastern Deans of Computer Science\n\n Paul Kalaghan, 1982-1988\n Alan Selman (acting), 1988-1990\n Cynthia Brown, 1990-1994\n Larry Finkelstein, 1994-2014\n Carla Brodley, 2014-2021\n Alan Mislove (interim), 2021-2022\n Elizabeth Mynatt, 2022 - present\n\nAcademic programs\nIn addition to a traditional computer science curriculum, Khoury College offers numerous other information science programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.\n\nComputer science\n\nThe computer science program at Khoury College focuses on the fundamentals of computer program design, software design, computer networking, computation theory, and other technical computer-related subjects.\n\nUndergraduate degrees\n\nThe CS program offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees. While both require a core curriculum of computer science, mathematics, science, and humanities coursework, the B.A. candidates are required to take more humanities coursework than B.S. candidates. The B.S. is thus the more technical of the two degrees, with the B.A. aimed at giving students a social science context with which to frame their understanding of computer science. Khoury College offers the following degrees:\n\nB.S. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Cybersecurity\nB.A. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Information Science\nB.S. in Data Science\n\nCombined majors\n\nKhoury College offers multiple combined major degree options within its own programs:\n\n B.S. in Computer Science and Information Science\n B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science\n\nThe combined B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science substitutes four master-level courses for their undergraduate equivalents. Students then have only to take four master-level electives to complete the program. This allows a student to graduate with both degrees on either a five-year track, or a six-year track with an additional co-op experience.\n\nIn addition, the College partners with other colleges at Northeastern to offer several joint degrees, such as combining Computer Science with Journalism, Game Design or Interactive Media.\n\nInformation science\n\nInformation science—the interdisciplinary study of how humans use information technology—combines a technical understanding of computer science and system design with the behavior context of the social sciences. Coursework covers the fields of information architecture, information system design and development, programming design, database design, and social informatics, among others. A two-semester senior capstone project, designed to integrate the many skill sets developed in the program, is required. Currently, only the B.S. of Information Science is offered, though it may be offered in conjunction with another degree.\n\nGraduate degrees\n\nKhoury College offers both Master of Science and doctoral degrees. In 2018, Khoury College\'s graduate program in computer science was ranked 49th in the list of the "Best Computer Science Graduate Schools." The publication also ranked the graduate program 12th on its list of "Best Programming Language Programs."\n\nMaster\'s degrees\n\nKhoury College offers the following master\'s degrees:\n\n MS in Computer Science \n Align MS in Computer Science (for people who did not study computer science as undergrads)\n MS in Cybersecurity\n MS in Data Science\n MS in Artificial Intelligence\n MS in Robotics\n MS in Health Informatics\n MS in Health Data Analytics\n MS in Game Science and Design\n\nCandidates for the MS in Computer Science can choose from the following concentrations:\n\nArtificial intelligence\nHuman–computer interaction\nDatabase management\nGraphics\nInformation security\nNetworks\nProgramming languages\nSoftware engineering\nSystems\nTheory\n\nKhoury College began offering the M.S. in Information Assurance (now the MS in Cybersecurity) in 2006, for which it has gained recognition by the National Security Agency as both a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education and Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Research. Masters candidates take coursework addressing the various technical, policy, and criminal justice-related issues involved in information assurance, preparing them for careers as corporate and government information executives. Full-time candidates for the M.S. in Cybersecurity typically finish the program in two years, with 32 semester hours required to earn the degree.\n\nPhD program\n\nThe PhD program prepares students for research careers in government, industry, or academia. Candidates are required to take coursework in computer systems, principles of programming languages, advanced algorithms, and computation theory. Electives in these and other subjects are also available. Candidates are given a maximum of five years to complete this coursework and their doctoral thesis. Khoury College offers four PhD programs:\n\n PhD in Computer Science\n PhD in Network Science\n PhD in Information Assurance\n PhD in Personal Health Informatics\n\nIn the 2011–2012 school year, the information assurance program began offering the Ph.D in Information Assurance, designed to be an interdisciplinary program with a focus on information assurance policy and research. Candidates for this doctoral degree take a core curriculum of computer networking, network security, hardware and software security, information security risk management, and information assurance policy. Elective coursework is then taken in one of three areas of concentration (or "tracks"), namely:\n\n Network/Communication Security\n System Security\n Policy/Society\n\nCandidates for the PhD in Information Assurance have a maximum of five years to complete their required coursework and doctoral thesis.\n\nThe PhD in Personal Health Informatics is an interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in Personal Health Informatics prepares researchers to design and evaluate technologies that improve health and wellness with the potential to transform healthcare. The joint degree program combines a strong curriculum in human-computer interface technology and experimental design in health sciences.\n\nStudent groups\nThe following student groups and organizations are part of the Khoury College community:\n\nAssociation for Computing Machinery (ACM)\nComputer Science Mentoring Organization (CoSMO)\nUndergraduate Experimental Systems Group (Crew), a volunteer student group supporting the Khoury IT systems staff\nUpsilon Pi Epsilon Honor Society (UPE)\nNortheastern University Women in Technology (NUWiT)\nNortheastern Game Development Club \nInformation Systems Security Association\nOut in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (oSTEM)\nNortheastern University DATA Club\n\nStudents of the college also participate in a variety of information security competitions, most notably the National Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition. The College\'s team won its regional qualifier, the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition ("NECCDC"), in 2009, and took first place at the national competition in 2010. Khoury College was host to the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition in 2011.\n\nCooperative education within Khoury College\nStudents at Khoury College have the option of participating in Northeastern\'s Cooperative Education Program ("co-op program"). The co-op program allows students to take semester-long internships with public and private-sector organizations, exposing them to the real world application of the skills and knowledge taught in their academic major. Nearly two-thirds of Khoury College\'s graduating students are offered full-time positions by the companies for at which they worked a co-op.\n\nCompanies that participate in this program range from small startups to large enterprises including Google, Microsoft, John Hancock, and Amazon.com. The college has been able to achieve 100% placement in the past 7 years for all students who choose to go on 5-year co-op program.\n\nKey people\n Carla Brodley, Professor, Dean of Inclusive Computing, Northeastern University \nMatthias Felleisen, Trustee Professor \nWilliam Clinger , Associate Professor Emeritus \n David Lazer, Distinguished Professor \n Albert-László Barabási, Distinguished Professor \n Alessandro Vespignani, Distinguished Professor \n Renée Miller, Distinguished Professor \n Gene Cooperman, Professor, parallel computing and combination puzzle analysis\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences website\n Northeastern University website\n\nNortheastern University\nEducational institutions established in 1982\nUniversity subdivisions in Massachusetts\n1982 establishments in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '385997',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern%20University',
  'title': 'Northeastern University',
  'text': 'Northeastern University (NU or NEU) is a private research university with its main campus in Boston. Established in 1898, the university offers undergraduate and graduate programs on its main campus in Boston as well as satellite campuses in Charlotte, North Carolina; Seattle, Washington; San Jose, California; Oakland, California;  Portland, Maine; and Toronto and Vancouver in Canada. In 2019, Northeastern purchased the New College of the Humanities in London, England. The university\'s enrollment is approximately 19,000 undergraduate students and 8,600 graduate students. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Northeastern faculty and alumni include Nobel Prize laureates, Rhodes, Truman, and Marshall scholars. Undergraduate admission to the university is categorized as "most selective."\n\nNortheastern features a cooperative education program, more commonly known as "co-op," that integrates classroom study with professional experience and includes over 3,100 partners across all seven continents. The program has been a key part of Northeastern\'s curriculum of experiential learning for more than a hundred years and is one of the largest co-op/internship programs in the world. While not required for all academic disciplines, participation is nearly universal among undergraduate students. Northeastern also has a comprehensive study abroad program that spans more than 170 universities and colleges.\n\nNortheastern is a large, highly residential university. Most undergraduate students choose to live on campus but third-years and above have the option to live off campus. Seventy-eight percent of Northeastern students receive some form of financial aid. In the 2020–21 school year, the university has committed $355\xa0million in grant and scholarship assistance. In 2019, Northeastern\'s six-year graduation rate was 89 percent.\n\nThe university\'s sports teams, the Northeastern Huskies, compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA) in 18 varsity sports. The men\'s and women\'s hockey teams compete in Hockey East, while the men\'s and women\'s rowing teams compete in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) and Eastern Association of Women\'s Rowing Colleges (EAWRC), respectively. Men\'s Track and Field has won the CAA back to back years in 2015 and 2016. In 2013, men\'s basketball won its first CAA regular season championship, men\'s soccer won the CAA title for the first time, and women\'s ice hockey won a record 16th Beanpot championship. The Northeastern men\'s hockey team won the 2018, 2019, and 2020 Beanpot, defeating Boston University, Boston College, and Harvard.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly development \n\nIn May 1896, directors of the Boston Young Men\'s Christian Association, the first in the U.S., established an Evening Institute for Younger Men, to merge, coordinate and improve its classes that had evolved over the past 40 years. Included among roughly 30 courses offered were algebra, bookkeeping, literature, French, German, Latin, geography, electricity, music, penmanship and physiology. In addition, a banjo club, camera club, orchestra, and weekly parliamentary debates and discussions were promoted. A good education for "any young man of moral character" with a YMCA membership was promised. Located in a new headquarters building at the corner of Boylston and Berkeley streets in Boston, the institute held its first classes in 1898. After a fire, a new YMCA building was constructed on Huntington Avenue in 1913.\n\nThe School of Law was also formally established in 1898 with the assistance of an advisory committee, consisting of James Barr Ames, dean of the Harvard Law School; Samuel Bennett, dean of the Boston University School of Law; and Judge James R. Dunbar. In 1903, the first Automobile Engineering School in the country was established, followed by a Polytechnic School in 1904 and a School of Commerce and Finance in 1907. Day classes began in 1909. In 1916, a bill was introduced into the Massachusetts Legislature to incorporate the institute as Northeastern College. After considerable debate and investigation, it was passed in March 1916.\n\nIn 1909, the Polytechnic School began offering co-operative engineering courses to eight students. A four-year daytime program had been established consisting of alternating single weeks of classroom instruction and practical work experience with mostly railroad companies that agreed to accept student workers. In 1920, the Co-operative School of Engineering, which later became the College of Engineering, was first authorized to grant degrees in civil, chemical, electrical and mechanical engineering. The cooperative program, the second of its kind in the U.S. after one in Cincinnati, Ohio, was eventually adopted by all departments.\n\nOn March 30, 1917, veteran educator Frank Palmer Speare, who had served as director of the institute, was inaugurated as the first president of the newly incorporated Northeastern College. Five years later the college changed its name to Northeastern University to better reflect the increasing depth of its instruction. In March 1923, the university secured general (A.B. and B.S.) degree-granting power from the Legislature, with the exception of the medical and dental degrees.\n\nThe College of Liberal Arts was added in 1935. Two years later the Northeastern University Corporation was established, with a board of trustees composed of 31 university members and 8 from the YMCA. Following World War II, Northeastern began admitting women. In 1948, Northeastern separated itself completely from the YMCA. By 1959, when Carl Ell who had expanded the university stepped down as president, Northeastern had a local identity as an independent technical university serving a commuter and adult population.\n\nThat reputation began changing during the presidency of Asa S. Knowles, from 1959 to 1975. Facing a postwar educational boom, the university broadened undergraduate offerings, increased graduate offerings, modernized administrative and faculty structures, created a Faculty Senate, launched its first-ever capital campaign, reorganized and expanded adult and continuing education, and increased the number of colleges. The university created the College of Education (1953), University College (1960), now called the College of Professional Studies, and the colleges of Pharmacy and Nursing (1964), which both later merged into the Bouvé College of Health Sciences. The creation of the College of Criminal Justice (1967) followed, and then the Khoury College of Computer Sciences (1982), the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science.\n\nThe period between 1959 and 1975, is also often described generally as "The Age of Student Unrest" or "The Student Revolution," when campuses across the United States were rocked with dissension against institutional discrimination and the Vietnam War. Northeastern\'s student population not only grew considerably larger, but also more diverse during this time. At the beginning of this period, most of the student body was composed of white males from New England, the majority of whom came from the Boston-area public schools and primarily studied business or engineering. By 1974–75, women accounted for 33 percent of the nearly 14,000 undergraduates students, while 5 percent were black. Moreover, over 900 students came from different foreign countries. Of the graduating class of 2,238, 513 were in Liberal Arts, 462 in Engineering, 389 in Business, 227 in Pharmacy and Allied Health, and the remainder were roughly divided among Education, Boston-Bouvé, Nursing and Criminal Justice.\n\nTo attract more women, the university refurbished existing facilities, constructed new women\'s dormitories and encouraged their participation in all programs. The merger with Boston-Bouvé, a women\'s college dedicated to physical health, and the creation of the College of Nursing, traditionally a female profession, also contributed to the increase. Though there was an explicit nondiscrimination policy on the books, throughout its history Northeastern had only a handful of black students. In the early 1960s, with financial assistance from the Ford Foundation in New York in the form of scholarships and co-ops to black high school students, Northeastern began actively recruiting black students. By 1975, black student-led organizations included the Afro-photo Society, Student Grill, Health Careers Club, The Onyx (a black student newspaper), Muhindi Literary Guild, the Outing Club, Black Engineering Society, and the first recognized black fraternity at the university, the Omicron Chapter of Iota Phi Theta. In addition, the number of foreign students increased from 170 in the 1950s and 1960s to 960 by 1974–75.\n\nRecent history \n \nBy the early 1980s, under President Kenneth G. Ryder, the one-time night commuter school had grown into one of the largest private universities in the nation at around 50,000 students. In 1990, the first class with more live-on campus rather than commuter students was graduated. After Ryder\'s retirement in 1989, the university adopted a slow and more thoughtful approach to change. Following an economic downturn, a 1991 Trustee committee report described the situation as "life threatening to Northeastern," warning of a $17 million budget gap with no funding mechanisms to cover it. That year President John A. Curry formulated a new strategy of transforming Northeastern into a "smaller, leaner, better place to work and study," describing unacceptable compromises in the quality and reputation of the university that had been made in the quest for more students. Staff were terminated and admissions targets were reduced, with applicant numbers beginning to rise by the end of Curry\'s tenure.\n\nWhen Curry left office in 1996, the university population had been systematically reduced to about 25,000. Incoming President Richard M. Freeland decided to focus on recruiting the type of students who were already graduating as the school\'s prime demographic. Freeland focused on improving academics and restructuring the administration with a goal of "creating the country\'s premier program of practice oriented education". In the early 1990s, the university began a $485 million construction program that included residence halls, academic and research facilities, and athletic centers. During the university\'s transition, Freeland reorganized the co-operative education system, decentralizing it into a department based system to allow better integration of classroom learning with workplace experience. Full-time degree programs shifted from a four-quarter system to two traditional semesters and two summer "minimesters," allowing students to both delve more deeply into their academic courses and have longer and more substantive co-op placements, forcing departments to redesign aging programs to fit the longer format. Freeland also created a marketing department, uncommon for universities at the time, and expanded the university advancement office, while setting an ambitious $200 million fundraising target with the goal of reducing dependency on tuition.\n\nBetween 1995 and 2007, average SAT exam scores increased more than 200 points, retention rates rose dramatically, and applications doubled. In 1998, Freeland set an admissions target of 2,800 freshman per year, allowing for adequate tuition income without compromising on education. Throughout the transformation, his oft-repeated goal was to crack the top 100 of the U.S. News & World Report\'s rankings of America\'s best universities. With this accomplished by 2005, the transformation goal from commuting school to nationally recognized research university was complete. Freeland stepped down on August 15, 2006, and was followed by President Joseph E. Aoun, a former dean at the University of Southern California.\n\nAs part of a five-year, $75 million Academic Investment Plan that ran from 2004 to 2009, the university concentrated on undergraduate education, core graduate professional programs, and centers of research excellence. Faculty was originally to be bolstered by 100 new tenured and tenure-track professors, later expanded to include 300 additional tenure and tenure-track faculty in interdisciplinary fields. Aoun also placed more emphasis on improving community relations by reaching out to leaders of the neighborhoods surrounding the university. In addition, Aoun created more academic partnerships with other institutions in the Boston area, including Tufts University, Hebrew College and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts.\n\nDuring this period, Northeastern rapidly advanced in national rankings. It placed 42nd in the 2014–15 edition of U.S. News & World Reports best colleges and universities rankings, a 7 position jump from 2013–14 and a 27 place gain since 2010–11. Critics have argued that Northeastern\'s rise in the rankings shows that the university has "cracked the code" to academic rankings, while others suggested it figured out how to "game the system." The 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked Northeastern 49th in its annual ranking of national universities. Whether or not the rise was an effort to reverse-engineer the controversial rankings formula, critics would likely agree that the positive feedback effect of its placement, in turn, allowed the institution to significantly increase its endowment, admit a more-competitive student body, hire new faculty, add to its campuses and expand its flagship co-op program.\n\nThe Empower Campaign was launched in May 2013 for student support, faculty advancement/expansion, innovation in education and research. Its goal was to raise $1 billion by 2017, with half of that being from philanthropic support and the other half from industry and government partnerships. The goal was raised to $1.25 billion in 2015. The campaign was inspired by Richard D\'Amore and Alan McKim\'s $60 million donation to the university\'s business school in 2012. In October 2017, Northeastern revealed that the final total of the Empower campaign was $1.4 billion. More than 100,000 individuals and over 3,800 organizations donated to Empower, from 110 countries.\n\nPresidents\nPresidents of Northeastern University:\n Frank Palmer Speare (1898–1940)\n Carl Stephens Ell (1940–1959)\n Asa S. Knowles (1959–1975)\n Kenneth G. Ryder (1975–1989)\n John A. Curry (1989–1996)\n Richard M. Freeland (1996–2006)\n Joseph E. Aoun (2006–present)\n\nUndergraduate admissions\n\nFor undergraduate students, Northeastern\'s 2020 acceptance rate was 18.1%. For the Class of 2024, Northeastern received 64,459 applications, with 13,199 students accepted. In 2018, the record number of applications led to a drop in acceptance rate, eight percentage points lower than the previous year. Additionally, Northeastern was one of the top ten most applied to colleges in 2018.\n\nFor the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Northeastern received 62,272 applications, accepted 12,042 (19%), and enrolled 2,746. For the freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 670–750 for reading and writing, 690–790 for math, while the middle 50% range ACT composite range was 32–34.\n\nOf those who applied in 2016, 9,500 were international students, up from 1,128 international applicants in 2006. Of those who enrolled, 20% were international students. In the Power of International Education\'s 2017 Open Doors report, Northeastern was ranked as the fourth-highest institution in the United States to host international students.\n\nWhen it comes to both undergraduate and graduate students, the number of international students totals over 12,000 representing 138 different nations and over half of the student body. The number of international students at Northeastern has steadily increased by about 1,000 students every year since 2008.\n\nRankings\n\nIn the 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report rankings, Northeastern was tied for 49th in the National Universities category.\n\nSpecialty rankings\n\n 1st in "Best Co-ops/Internships"  (U.S. News & World Report) (2020)\n 1st in "Best Schools for Internships" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)\n 1st in "Best Internships/Career Services" (Princeton Review) (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015)\n 2nd in "Best Graduate Psychology Programs" (2018)\n 2nd in "Best Physician Assistant Programs" (2018)\n 3rd in "Best Nursing-Anesthesia Programs" (2018)\n 3rd in "Best Career Services" (Princeton Review) (2016, 2017, 2018)\n 4th in "Top 25 Entrepreneurship: Ugrad" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018) \n 4th in "Best Health Care Law Programs" (2018)\n 6th in "Most Innovative Schools" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018) (up from 7th in 2017)\n 7th in "The Top 25 B.A. Theatre Programs for 2018–19" (OnStage Blog)\n 9th in "Best Undergraduate International Business Programs" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 12th (tied) in "Freshman Retention Rate" – 97% (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 12th in "Best Graduate School Programs in Criminology" (2017)\n 14th in "Computer Science – Overall" (2020) (CSRankings)\n 14th in "Artificial Intelligence" (2020) (CSRankings)\n 19th in the nation for "Undergraduate Business Schools" (Bloomberg Businessweek) (2014)\n 23rd in Top 50 Game Design: Ugrad (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)\n 30th in "Best Clinical Training Programs" (2018)\n 30th in "Best Speech-Language Pathology Programs" (2018)\n 31st in "Best Graduate Engineering Schools" (2021)\n 32nd in "Best Graduate Industrial / Manufacturing / Systems Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 32nd in "Best Online Graduate Computer Information Technology Programs"\n 33rd in "Best Graduate School Programs in Pharmacy" (2017, 2018)\n 33rd in "Lowest Acceptance Rate" (2018) (U.S. News & World Report)\n 37th in "Best Online Graduate Business Programs" (Excluding MBA) (2018)\n 38th in "Best Audiology Programs" (2018)\n 39th in "High School Counselor Rankings" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 40th in "Best Graduate Physical Therapy Programs" (2018)\n 42nd in "Best Online MBA Programs" (2018)\n 47th in "Best Graduate Sociology Programs" (2018)\n 49th in "Best Computer Science Graduate School Programs", with the Programming Language specialty ranked 12th (2018)\n 54th in "Best Business Graduate Schools"  (2018)\n 54th in "Best Graduate Environmental / Environmental Health Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 54th in "Best Graduate Materials Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 55th in "Best Graduate Mathematics Programs" (2018)\n 56th in "Best Graduate Physics Programs" (2018)\n 57th in "Best Nursing Graduate Schools" (2018)\n 59th in "Best Business Program" (2018)\n 60th in "Best Law Schools" (2018)\n 65th in "Best Nursing Graduate Schools" (2018)\n 65th in "Best Law Schools" (2018)\n 67th in "Best Graduate English Programs" (2018)\n 67th in "Best Value Schools" (2018)\n 77th in "Best Graduate Public Affairs Programs" (2018)\n\nAcademics\nNortheastern offers undergraduate majors in 65 departments. At the graduate level, there are about 125 programs. A Northeastern education is interdisciplinary and entrepreneurial. Founded in 2009, IDEA is Northeastern University\'s student-led Venture Accelerator, which provides entrepreneurs, including students, faculty, and alumni in the Northeastern community with the necessary support and educational experience towards developing a business from core concept to launch. Academics at Northeastern is grounded in a liberal arts education and the integration of classroom studies with experiential learning opportunities, including cooperative education, student research, service learning, and global experience, including study abroad and international co-op.\n\nThe university\'s cooperative education program places about 10,000 students annually in full-time, paid professional positions with more than 3,000 co-op employers in Boston and around the world. In 2014, College Prowler gave Northeastern an "A+" rating for the quality of classes, professors, and overall academic environment. Northeastern University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.\n\nColleges and schools\nColleges listed including schools and degrees offered:\n\n College of Arts, Media and Design (BA, BFA, BLA, BS, M.Arch., MA, M.Des., MFA, MS, Graduate Certificate)\n School of Architecture\n Department of Art + Design\n Department of Communication Studies\n Department of Media and Screen Studies\n Department of Music\n Department of Theatre\n Games at Northeastern\n School of Journalism\n D\'Amore-McKim School of Business (BSBA, BSIB, BS, MBA, MS, MSA, MSF, MSIB, MSIM, MST, Graduate Certificate)\n School of Technological Entrepreneurship\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences (BACS, BS, BSCS, BSIS, MS, MSCS, MSIA, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n College of Engineering (BS, BSBioE, BSCE, BSCHE, BSCompE, BSEE, BSIE, BSME, MS, MSBioE, MSCHE, MSCivE, MSCSE, MSECE, MSECEL, MSEM, MSENVE, MSIE, MSME, MSOR, MSSBS, MSTSM, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Department of Bioengineering\n Department of Chemical Engineering\n Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering\n Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering\n Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering\n Gordon Institute of Engineering Leadership\n Bouvé College of Health Sciences (AuD, BS, BSN, CAGS, DPN, DPT, MPH, MS, MSCP, PharmD, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Department of Applied Psychology\n Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders\n Department of Health Sciences\n Department of Physical Therapy, Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences\n The School of Nursing\n The School of Pharmacy\n College of Professional Studies (BS, BSET, DLP, DPT, EdD, MA, MAT, MEd, MPS, MS, MSLD, Graduate Certificate, Undergraduate Certificate)\n English Language Center\n School of Education\n Lowell Institute School\n School Health Institute\n World Languages Center\n College of Science (BA, BS, MS, MSOR, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Biochemistry Program\n Department of Biology\n Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology\n Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences\n Department of Mathematics\n Department of Physics\n Department of Psychology\n Linguistics at Northeastern\n College of Social Science and Humanities (BA, Bachelor of Science, MA, MPA, MS, MSCJ, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Asian Studies Program\n ASL Program\n Department of African-American Studies\n Department of Economics\n Department of English\n Department of History\n Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures\n Department of Philosophy and Religion\n Department of Political Science\n Department of Sociology and Anthropology\n Human Services Program\n International Affairs Program\n Jewish Studies Program\n School of Criminology and Criminal Justice\n School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs\n School of Law (MS, JD)\n\nHonors Program\nThe University Honors Program offers selected students an enhanced curriculum. These students are selected from the regular applicant pool with no separate application and represent the applicants with the highest GPA and SAT/ACT scores that year. The culminating experience is advanced specialty work in a major field through college-specific choices including specialized advanced honors seminars and an independent research project. In addition, students in the Honors Program exclusively can live in a Living-Learning Community housed in West Villages C and F. In Fall 2009, the university began housing first-year Honors students in the lower nine floors of the newly constructed International Village residence hall. Starting in Fall 2017, these students are housed in the lower floors of the even newer 17 story East Village residence hall. 2017 also marked the beginning of the Honors Discovery course and the introduction of the Student Assessed Integrated Learning (SAIL) app.\n\nCo-op/internship program\nLaunched in 1909, Northeastern has one of the largest and oldest cooperative education (co-op) programs in the world. In the co-op program, students alternate periods of academic study with periods of professional employment (usually paid) related to their major. Most majors offer a four-year graduation option with fewer co-op placements, but the five-year program is slightly more popular with students. Students on co-op do not pay tuition and students not living on campus do not pay room and board. The co-op program typically begins the spring of the second year or fall of the third year (after a more traditional program for the first semesters on campus). Students usually take anywhere between one and three with 96% participating in one and 78% participating in two or more.\n\nCo-op placements range from small start-up companies to large multinational companies, including many Fortune 500 corporations. The program also places students with government agencies, branches of government, nonprofits, and non-governmental organizations. Northeastern students can be found interning in the United States Congress, the White House, United Nations, and at NASA. Student placements usually last six months and most of the time, students are paid. Students may live in the university residence halls on campus during co-op employment, and the university currently leases housing for students co-oping in New York City, San Francisco, Seattle and Washington, D.C. and assists elsewhere.\n\nNortheastern co-op students staying in Boston usually benefit from the fact that the city\'s most prominent industries have numerous offices/headquarters there. Boston\'s most consequential industries such as its financial sector, technology sector, and medicine/life sciences sector tend to hire many co-ops in these fields especially to big-name companies. When it comes to D\'amore-Mckim Business students, many co-ops end up working for large financial firms such as State Street and John Hancock Financial. Accounting firms such as PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) and Deloitte & Touche as well as consulting firms such as Boston Consulting Group tend to hire many co-ops every cycle as well. Retail companies like TJX Companies and Staples tend to hire several marketing students every cycle.\n\nSome students also decide to develop their own co-ops if they wish to do something that is not offered. This usually involves starting a new company or reaching out to a company Northeastern does not have a partnership with and facilitating the creation of a co-op partnership. Many companies continually pass down their co-op opportunities to Northeastern students so these new partnerships are documented in Northeastern\'s co-op database, known as NUCareers, to be given to future Northeastern students. Students that decide to start their own companies are usually involved with IDEA, Northeastern\'s Venture Accelerator, and will sometimes spend their entire two or three co-ops solely developing their companies. They might also join the Husky Startup Challenge which also helps develop student-run companies. If a company is successful in either IDEA, the Husky Startup Challenge or both, they often to move onto MassChallenge in Boston which is a huge global non-profit startup accelerator and competition.\n\nAll Northeastern students take at least one class which prepares them for their co-op and the expectations of a given industry. Some schools, such as D\'Amore-McKim, have students take three different one-credit classes to prepare them for their co-op. During these classes, students work with advisers inside and outside of class to pursue potential co-ops as well as work on strategies to make themselves more competitive against other candidates.\n\nThe co-op program has led to the university\'s high reputation when it comes to job placement. 50% of Northeastern students receive a job offer from a previous co-op employer . 92% were either employed or enrolled in graduate school 9 months after graduation. This has also led Northeastern to consistently rank within the top 5 in the Princeton Review\'s list for "Best Career Services/Internships" within the last decade, mainly taking the top spot. The list split into "Best Career Services" and "Best Internships" in 2016 and Northeastern currently ranks 3rd for career services and 5th for internships in the United States.\n\nStudy abroad\nNortheastern has semester-long study abroad programs with placements in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and South America. Some participating schools include: University of Cambridge and London School of Economics, England; University of Edinburgh, Scotland; Reims Management School, France; European School of Business, Germany; University of Cape Town, South Africa; University of Auckland, New Zealand; Swinburne University of Technology, Australia; Obirin University, Japan; American College of Thessaloniki, Greece and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile and also Antarctica.\n\nNortheastern\'s International Business program is a member of the International Partnership of Business Schools. Through this program International Business students have the opportunity to be awarded a dual-degree from Northeastern as well as from a sister school abroad.\n\nSince the arrival of President Aoun in 2006, the school has also been emphasizing co-op abroad, in an effort to make the school more global and internationally engaged. There are many programs being offered including social entrepreneurship in the Peru, Kenya, and South Africa.\n\n Dialogues of Civilizations \nNortheastern also has the notable Dialogues of Civilizations program, which features dozens of one-month-long programs (usually taking place in the summer) where a faculty member will teach a group of students in a region related to the curriculum of a specific class. A sort of "mini" study abroad, each program has an area of focus – for example, the Geneva program focuses on small arms and multilateral negotiations, while the South Africa program is based in non-governmental organizations, and the Seattle program focuses on design thinking. This program is meant to be a communicative experience and an exchange of ideas and cultures. It is open to all majors and all years, and is the most popular external study option at Northeastern.\n\nThe program is used by some Northeastern students to gain extra credits for a minor or concentration and can also be used by students trying to graduate in 4 years while also participating in one or more co-ops. The program will sometimes take place in multiple locations. Entrepreneurship and Global Consulting in Israel is a dialogue that starts in Boston and eventually has students go to Tel-Aviv and Beer Sheva, Israel. Some dialogues span multiple countries with one being taught in Marrakesh, Morocco, then in Amsterdam and concluding in Paris.\n\n N.U.in \nNortheastern also offers a program called "N.U.in" which has first-year students start their first semester studying abroad. This program accepts students into the university but has them spend their first semester studying at a foreign university partnered with Northeastern. Students take classes and these credits transfer over to Northeastern when they arrive on campus in the spring. The program began in 2007 with the creation of N.U.in Australia and only had the option for students to go abroad during their fall semester. An option for freshman to go abroad in their spring was later added called "N.U.in Spring" and later renamed "Global Quest". By 2012, 500 students enrolled in the N.U.in program which at the time offered the destinations of London, Dublin, Thessaloniki (Greece), Sydney, and San José (Costa Rica). By 2017 that number grew to 1,100 students and the program had expanded to Shanghai, Rome, Berlin, Montreal, Melbourne, and removed San José as an N.U.in destination.\n\nResearch\nResearch Centers and Institutes at Northeastern include:\n\n Advanced Scientific Computation Center (ASCC)\n Anti–microbial Discovery Center\n Awareness and Localization of Explosives-Related Threats (ALERT)\n Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis\n Bernard M. Gordon Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems (Gordon-CenSSIS)\n Brudnick Center on Violence and Conflict\n Center for Communications and Digital Signal Processing (CDSP)\n Center for Community Health Education, Research, and Service (CCHERS)\n Center for Complex Network Research (CCNR)\n Center for Drug Discovery\n Center for Emerging Markets\n Center for Entrepreneurship Education\n Center for Family Business\n Center for Health Policy and Healthcare Research\n Center for Health Policy and Law\n Center for Healthcare Organizational Transformation (CHOT)\n Center for High-rate Nanomanufacturing (CHN)\n Center for Inclusive Computing\n Center for Integrative Biomedical Computing (CIBC)\n Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Complex Systems (CIRCS)\n Center for International Affairs and World Cultures\n Center for Law, Innovation, and Creativity (CLIC)\n Center for Microcontamination Control (CMC)\n Center for Microwave Magnetic Materials and Integrated Circuits (CM3IC)\n Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine\n Center for Public Interest Advocacy and Collaboration (CPIAC)\n Center for Research on Early Childhood Exposure and Development in Puerto Rico (CRECE)\n Center for Translational Applications of Nanoscale Multiferroic Systems (TANMS)\n Center for Translational NeuroImaging (CTNI)\n Center for Ultra-wide-area Resilient Electric Energy Transmission Networks (CURENT)\n Center on Crime and Community Resilience\n CMS Innovation Center for Healthcare Systems Engineering\n Coastal Sustainability Institute\n Cybersecurity and Privacy Institute\n Dukakis Center for Urban and Regional Policy\n Electronic Materials Research Institute (eMRI)\n Ethics Institute\n George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security\n Global Resilience Institute\n Humanities Center\n Institute for Chemical Imaging of Living Systems\n Institute for Global Innovation Management (IGIM)\n Institute for Health Equity and Social Justice Research\n Institute for Information Assurance\n Institute for Security and Public Policy\n Institute for the Wireless Internet of Things\n Institute on Race and Justice\n Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex (ISEC)\n Marine Science Center\n National Education and Research Center for Outcomes Assessment in Healthcare (NERCOA)\n Network Science Institute\n New England Healthcare Systems Engineering Partnership (NEHCEP)\n New England Inflammation and Tissue Protection Institute\n Northeastern University Center for Renewable Energy Technology (NUCRET)\n NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks\n Public Health Advocacy Institute (PHAI)\n Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats (PROTECT)\n Social Science Environmental Health Research Institute\n Sport in Society (previously the Center for the Study of Sport in Society)\n The Middle East Center\n The Northeastern Environmental Justice Research Collaborative (NEJRC)\n Versatile Onboard Traffic Embedded Roaming Sensors (VOTERS)\n\nThe university provides undergraduate students with an opportunity to engage in research through the Center for Experiential Education, CenSSIS Research Experience for Undergraduates,  Honors Research, Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation program, and Provost\'s Office research grants. In FY 2007, annual external research funding exceeded $78\xa0million. In FY 2009–10, the research funding is close to $82\xa0million. In 2002, Northeastern\'s Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems was designated an NSF Engineering Research Center. In 2004, Northeastern was one of six institutions selected by the National Science Foundation as a center for research in nanotechnology. In 2010, Northeastern was granted $12\xa0million by an alum for a Homeland security research facility, to be named the George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, after its chief benefactor.\n\nFaculty\n\nNortheastern had 1,352 full-time faculty, 95% of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field, and 479 part-time faculty in Fall 2018. Northeastern faculty members direct more than 35 research and education centers, including a National Science Foundation (NSF) Engineering Research Center, an NSF Nanomanufacturing Center, and two NSF Integrated Graduate Education and Research Traineeship programs.\n\n Campus \nNortheastern University\'s main campus is located on  mostly along Huntington Avenue and Columbus Avenue in an area known as the Fenway Cultural District, part of Boston\'s Fenway and Roxbury neighborhood, near the Museum of Fine Arts, Symphony Hall, New England Conservatory, and Christian Science Center.\n\nDespite its location in central Boston, Northeastern is home to a significant amount of green open space and quads. Since the late 1990s, Northeastern has been considered a model of design for urban universities and has twice won the American Institute of Architects\'s "Most Beautiful New or Renovated Exterior Space" award in 2001 and 2004. In 2019, the campus was officially designated as an arboretum by ArbNet, making it the only campus in Boston to receive the designation.\n\nThe first baseball World Series took place on the Huntington Avenue Grounds, now part of the campus. The site is commemorated in front of Churchill Hall by a statue of Cy Young.\n\nIn 2014, Northeastern officially launched a Public Art Initiative to place a series of colorful murals and other art around the Boston campus. Among those whose work has been commissioned are French artist Jef Aérosol, Houston-born artist Daniel Anguilu, Los Angeles-based El Mac and Charleston, South Carolina-born artist Shepard Fairey, known for his 2008 Barack Obama "Hope" poster.\n\nCampus development\n\nDuring the Great Depression in the 1930s, as enrollment grew to over 4,600 students, President Frank Palmer Speare announced that Northeastern would build a new campus. Coolidge Shepley Bulfinch and Abbott, a Boston-based architectural firm, was selected to design the campus near the Huntington Avenue YMCA building that continued to house library and classroom spaces. Richards Hall, which housed classrooms, laboratories and administrative offices, was the first building completed in October 1938. Its light gray, glazed brick exterior with vertical strips of windows was replicated in other buildings of what later became known as the 1944 master plan. A mix of Beaux-Arts and Bauhaus architectural styles defined by stripped-down classicism and open courtyards that resembled that of Massachusetts Institute of Technology across the Charles River. In a June 14, 1934 article, the Boston Evening Transcript described the campus design as "modernistic classical." President Carl Ell completed the remaining buildings of the master plan, including construction of the Cabot Physical Education Center, Churchill Hall and Hayden Hall.\n\nIn 1961, under President Asa Knowles, the university purchased a 7-acre red brick industrial complex once owned by the United Drug Company to build to athletic facilities. Three of the buildings facing Forsyth Street were demolished, but due to a need for more office and lab space, the remaining buildings were divided into four sections now called Lake Hall, Holmes Hall, Nightingale Hall and Meserve Hall. The historic structure, built in 1911, would influence new campus buildings away from the original gray-brick campus, as exemplified by the extension of the law school\'s Cargill Hall in the early 1980s. Over past few decades, Northeastern\'s academic and residential buildings have expanded considerably. Through landscape improvements, the university transformed a commuter school campus, once dominated by asphalt, to a greener environment. For example, the Behrakis Health Sciences Center, named for 1957 pharmaceutical alumnus George Behrakis, is a  mixed-use project that included a residence hall and parking garage containing a garden roof, integrates smoothly into the campus. Centennial Path was added in 1996 and connects the gray- and red-brick sections of campus with trees, flowers, shrubbery and gently curving brick and asphalt surfaces.\n\nDuring the last few years, major developments include Northeastern becoming recognized as an arboretum, opening a $225 million research and laboratory complex known as the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex (ISEC), launching the Institute for Experiential Artificial Intelligence with a $50 million donation, as well as renaming the College of Computer and Information Science to the Khoury College of Computer Sciences with another $50 million donation from Amin Khoury.\n\nUpcoming projects include plans to build EXP, another research facility created to support Northeastern\'s work in autonomous vehicles, drones, and humanoid robots. This building will be approximately  larger than ISEC and is expected to be completed by 2023.\n\nSustainability\n\nThe 2011 Sustainable Endowments Institute\'s College Sustainability Report Card issued Northeastern a grade of "A-" for its environmental sustainability efforts and programs. Additionally, the Princeton Review rated Northeastern as one of the top 15 "Green Colleges" in the nation in 2010. In 2011, the GreenMetric World University ranking evaluated Northeastern as the second greenest university in the world, and first in the US. Northeastern placed first in the rankings again in 2014.\n\nIn accordance with a Boston zoning code amendment in 2007, International Village residence hall was certified as a LEED Gold building in 2010. Dockser Hall was the first building on campus to achieve LEED certification, also Gold, with the completion of its renovation in 2010. East Village was rated LEED Silver in 2016 and the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex was rated LEED Gold in 2018. The university affiliated LightView apartment building is targeting a LEED Platinum certification, the first in student housing in the City of Boston.\n\nIn 2004, Northeastern was awarded the prestigious gold medal by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for its Dedham Campus.\n\nPublic safety\n\nThe Northeastern University Police Department (NUPD) is a full-service law enforcement agency with full powers of arrest on university property or property used by Northeastern students and faculty. In 2019 NUPD received Advanced Accreditation with Excellence from the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA), one of six agencies in Massachusetts to receive CALEA accreditation. The campus is adjacent to the Boston Police Department\'s headquarters. A 2008 Reader\'s Digest survey ranked NU as the second safest school in the United States after Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.\n\nPublic transportation\nNortheastern is bracketed by the MBTA\'s Orange Line and Green Line E branch. Six stations serve the campus: Massachusetts Avenue and Ruggles on the Orange Line; and Symphony, Northeastern, Museum of Fine Arts, and Longwood Medical Area on the Green Line. The Green Line is paralleled by the #39 bus. Ruggles also serves the Needham, Providence/Stoughton, and Franklin Lines of the MBTA Commuter Rail system, and 14 local bus routes.\n\nLandmarks\nKrentzman Quadrangle\nFacing Huntington Avenue, Krentzman Quadrangle is the main quadrangle on the campus of Northeastern. It is recognizable by the "Northeastern University" brick sign in front. The quad lies at the heart of the original campus between Ell, Dodge and Richards halls, and serves as a gathering space for community members and outdoor activities. It was named after Harvey Krentzman, a businessman and 1949 alumnus.\n\nEll Hall\n\nEll Hall, completed in 1947, is one of the oldest buildings on campus and is centered on Krentzman Quadrangle. It contains administrative offices, classrooms, art display space, a 992-seat auditorium and the Northeastern Bookstore. Like Dodge Hall, Ell Hall has five floors and also connects to the tunnel network. The tunnels interconnect the major administrative and traditional academic buildings for use in inclement weather.\n\nBlackman Auditorium, Northeastern\'s largest event space, hosts many different types of events for classes, theater groups, dance teams, musical groups, choral groups, fraternities, sororities, and orchestral ensembles. Blackman has hosted many talented individuals from Maya Angelou to Seth Meyers.\n\nGallery 360 is Northeastern University\'s art gallery, which is free and open to the public throughout the year. The  space houses temporary exhibits of artworks by visiting artists, students, faculty, and the surrounding community. Some larger exhibits also include the adjacent hallways for additional space. Curation and administration is under the supervision of the College of Arts Media and Design (CAMD).\n\nEll Hall was named for Carl Ell, president of Northeastern from 1940 to 1959, who is credited with expanding the campus and making cooperative education an integral part of the university-wide curriculum.\n\nDodge Hall\nDodge Hall sits on Krentzman Quadrangle and primarily serves as the home of Northeastern\'s D\'Amore-McKim School of Business. The building was completed in 1952 and named for Robert Gray Dodge, a former chairman of Northeastern\'s board of trustees. It has five floors. Classrooms and a lounge area occupy the first floor. The business school\'s undergraduate office is on the second floor and the graduate office is on the third floor. The School of Professional Accounting office is on the fourth floor. The basement houses a computer lab and is connected to the university\'s large network of tunnels.\n\nFrom 1953 until Snell Library opened in 1990, Dodge Hall\'s basement served as the university\'s main library. Directly behind Dodge Hall is the Boston YMCA, where Northeastern was founded in 1898.\n\nRichards Hall\nOriginally known as West Building, Richards Hall borders Krentzman Quadrangle and was the first building constructed on campus in October 1938. Its light gray brick and vertical window strips design was the work of alumnus Herman Voss and was replicated in other surrounding buildings. It is an administrative building with some academic space.\n\nRichards Hall was named for Boston industrialist James Lorin Richards, a former board trustee.\n\nCentennial Common\nCentennial Common is a lawn created to mark the 100th anniversary of Northeastern University in 1998. The grassy area borders Shillman Hall, Ryder Hall, Meserve Hall, Leon Street, Forsyth Street and Ruggles Station, and serves as a gateway to the West Campus. The area is a popular gathering spot frequently used by students for recreational purposes and outdoor activities by student organizations.\n\nInterdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex\n\nOn February 21, 2014, Northeastern had its groundbreaking ceremony for the new Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex (ISEC) on Columbus Avenue. Completed in 2017, the  building provides research and educational space for students and faculty from the College of Science, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, College of Engineering, and Khoury College of Computer Sciences. The centerpiece of the complex includes a large atrium, a spiral staircase, and a 280-seat auditorium.\n\nMatthews Arena\n\nOpened in 1910 and originally known as the Boston Arena, Matthews Arena is the world\'s oldest surviving indoor ice hockey arena. Located on the eastern edge of Northeastern University\'s campus, it is home to the Northeastern Huskies men\'s and women\'s hockey teams, and men\'s basketball team as well as the Wentworth Institute of Technology\'s men\'s hockey team. The arena is named after former university Board of Trustees Chairman George J. Matthews, a 1956 graduate, and his wife, the late Hope M. Matthews, who helped fund a major renovation in 1982. The arena is the original home of the NHL Boston Bruins and the WHA New England Whalers (now the NHL Carolina Hurricanes). It was also the secondary home to the NBA Boston Celtics in the 1940s. It has hosted all or part of the America East Conference men\'s basketball tournament a total of seven times and hosted the 1960 Frozen Four. The arena also served as the original home to the annual Beanpot tournament between Boston\'s four major college hockey programs.\n\nMarino Recreation Center\n\nThe Marino Recreation Center, named after 1961 alumnus Roger Marino, co-founder of EMC Corporation, is an indoor fitness center that opened in the Fall of 1996. Its first floor contains an atrium with two cafés (Tatte and b.good) and a food market (Wollaston\'s). The second floor includes a student exercise area, a multipurpose room used for aerobics classes and martial arts clubs, and a gymnasium consisting of three basketball courts. The third floor has a state-of-the-art resistance training area and a fully equipped free weight room. A three-lane suspended track is available for either walking or jogging, and rowing ergometers are available.\n\n Residential Halls \nResidential halls at Northeastern vary quite significantly from low-rise former Boston apartment buildings to purpose built high-rise dormitories. Residential halls vary in size from as few as 50 students to as many as 1,000 per building.Traditional Accommodations Hastings Hall\n Kerr Hall\n Light Hall\n Melvin Hall\n Smith Hall\n Speare Hall\n Stetson East\n Stetson West\n White HallSuite-Style Accommodations 153 Hemenway Street\n Kennedy Hall\n International Village\n East VillageApartment-Style Accommodations Davenport Commons (A & B)\n West Villages (A, B, C, E, F, G, H)\n 10 Coventry\n 780 Columbus Ave\n 106, 110, 116, 122 St Stephen St\n 319, 337 & 407 Huntington Ave\n Burstein Hall\n Loftman Hall\n Rubenstein Hall\n Willis Hall\n 144 Hemenway St\n Lightview\n\nFirst-year students are usually divided into groups called Living Learning Communities (LLCs) which place students with certain majors, interests or hobbies together. LLCs host events related to specific areas of interest for members of that LLC to participate in. LLCs can span sections of floors in a residential hall, entire floors, multiple floors or entire buildings.\n\nEast Village\nEast Village is Northeastern\'s newest dorm building and only houses freshmen and upperclassmen who are in the University Honors Program. The building is located at 291 St. Botolph Street and opened in January 2015. Honors freshman live in its suite-style rooms whereas upperclassmen can choose full apartments with kitchen facilities. The building also contains 5 classrooms in the basement and an event space on the 17th Floor.\n\nWest Village\n\nThe West Village complex includes eight buildings serving mainly as residence halls and classrooms.\n Building A (opened 1999): Residence Hall (two sections, West Village A North and South).\n Building B (opened 2001): Residence Hall.\n Building C (opened 2001): Residence Hall (several floors for upperclassmen honors students) and one classroom.\n Building D – Behrakis Health Science Center (opened 2002): classrooms and laboratories\n Building E (opened 2002): Residence Hall.\n Building G (opened 2004): Residence Hall and several classrooms.\n Building H (opened 2004): Residence Hall. Open to students who are over the age of 21. Single rooms only. It\'s the new home of the Khoury College of Computer Sciences (several classrooms, offices and computer labs). Building H was originally reserved for honors student, but that rule was dropped.\n Building F (opened 2006): Residence Hall for upper-class students, classrooms, John D. O\'Bryant African-American Institute, Admissions Visitors Center.\n\nIn 2008, West Village Building F was recognized in American Institute of Architects New England 2008 Merit Awards for Design Excellence.\n\nSouth Campus (Columbus Avenue)\nNortheastern\'s southernmost section of campus is located along Columbus Avenue in Roxbury, parallel to the Orange line. The university expanded south into Roxbury at the same time as they were building West Village. In 2001, Davenport Commons was opened, providing 585 students housing in two residence halls while 75 families representing a range of incomes have been able to purchase a condo or townhouse at or below Boston\'s market value. Davenport Commons also created commercial space on Tremont Street.\n\nDuring the summer of 2006, Northeastern proposed a new residence hall further away from the main campus, at the corner of Tremont Street and Ruggles Street. Construction began in late February 2007. In the Spring of 2009, the complex was named International Village and opened later that Summer. It consists of three interconnected residential towers, an office tower, administration building, and a gym. A 400-seat dining hall is available to all members of the Northeastern community as well as the public.\n\nLightview was launched in 2019, which was Boston\'s first developer-led, equity-financed student housing project built and financed by American Campus Communities exclusively for Northeastern students. The building is 20 stories tall and includes a fitness area as well as social and recreational spaces.\n\nThe following buildings make up the South Campus:Residential buildings Davenport Commons A – 2000\n Davenport Commons B – 2000\n 780 Columbus Avenue – 2001 (converted lofts; formerly South End Auto Supply) \n 768 Columbus Avenue (faculty/graduate students)\n 10 Coventry – 2005\n International Village – 2009\n LightView Apartments – 2019Administrative buildings Columbus Place – 1997\n Renaissance Park \n International Village Office Building – 2009\n Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Building – 2017Athletic buildings Badger and Rosen Facility (SquashBusters) – 2003\n\nLibrary facilities\nNortheastern University Libraries include the Snell Library and the John D. O\'Bryant African-American Institute Library. The NU School of Law Library is separately administered by the NU School of Law.\n\nThe Snell Library opened in 1990 at a cost of $35\xa0million, and contains 1.3\xa0million volumes. The main library is open 24 hours a day, allowing students to research or study at any time they wish. The Digital Media Design Studio within the library is a collaborative and interdisciplinary learning environment for creating course-related multimedia presentations, projects, and portfolios.\n\nThe library is home to the Favat Collection, a current collection of children\'s literature and K-12 curriculum resources, instructional materials, and related information to support courses offered by the School of Education. It contains three computer labs operated by NU Information Services. Two are available to all NU students, faculty, and staff; the other is a teaching lab.\n\nThe Snell Library is also home to the Northeastern University Archives and Special Collections department, which includes the Benjamin LaGuer papers collection. The Special Collections focus on records of Boston-area community-based organizations that are concerned with social justice issues.\n\nThe NU Libraries received federal depository designation in 1963. As a selective depository, the Libraries receive 45% of the federal publication series available to depository libraries.\n\nIn June 2016, the library staff adopted an open-access policy to make its members\' professional research publicly accessible online.Dining Facilities\'\'\'\n\nNortheastern features two dining halls with buffet-style offerings. These include the Levine Marketplace at Stetson East and International Village Dining at the International village residence hall on the southern portion of campus. Both halls allow students to gain access either by cashing in a meal pass stored on their Husky Card or purchasing access at the door using a credit card. Once inside, students are able to eat as much food as they please before leaving.\n\nSpiritual Life Center and Sacred Space\nWithin the urban environment that characterizes the campus as a whole, NU has carved out a quiet, peaceful space in the centrally located Ell Building for the Spiritual Life Center\'s Sacred Space. The nondenominational Sacred Space, the center\'s main assembly hall, can be configured with carpets, mats or chairs. It has a distinctive ceiling consisting of 3 hanging domes made of overlapping aluminum tiles with an origami-like effect, warm wood floors and accents, and glass-paneled walls that lean outward slightly, their shape and material giving a sense of openness and volume to the space. Faucets for ablution are available in a flanking antechamber, and the center also contains a smaller meeting space and library. The Sacred Space opened in 1998. The architects Office dA (Nader Tehrani & Monica Ponce de Leon)  received the 2002 Harleston Parker Medal from the Boston Society of Architects for the design.\n\nNetwork campuses\n\nIn addition to Northeastern\'s main Boston campus, the university operates a number of satellite locations in Massachusetts, including the George J. Kostas Research Institute in Burlington, a Financial District campus in the Hilton Hotel near Faneuil Hall in downtown Boston, a Dedham Campus in Dedham, and a Marine Science Center in Nahant. The Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, which opened in 2011, contains the Laboratory for Structural Testing of Resilient and Sustainable Systems (STReSS Laboratory). The laboratory is "equipped to test full-scale and large-scale structural systems and materials to failure so as to explore the development of new strategies for designing, simulating, and sensing structural and infrastructure systems".\n\nThe university has also launched a number of full-service remote network campuses in North America, including in Charlotte, North Carolina, in October 2011, Seattle, in January 2013, San Jose, California, in March 2015, Toronto, in 2016 and Vancouver, British Columbia in 2019. In January 2020, Northeastern announced that it was opening the Roux Institute in Portland, Maine, a new research institute focused on artificial intelligence and machine learning in digital and life sciences. The decision came after Northeastern was selected for a $100 million donation by David Roux, in hopes of turning the city into a new tech hub and in an attempt to spark economic growth in the region.\n\nMore recently, the university has continued to focus on global expansion. In late 2018, Northeastern announced the acquisition of the New College of the Humanities, a small private London-based college founded by the philosopher A. C. Grayling. The move was seen as unorthodox as most U.S. colleges have typically chosen to build new campus branches abroad, rather than purchasing existing ones.\n\nIn June 2021, Northeastern and Mills College in Oakland, California, announced preliminary plans for a merger. Under the tentative plans, the liberal arts college, which faced financial and declining enrollment troubles, would be renamed Mills College at Northeastern University. In September 2021, the merger was finalized, creating the Mills Institute.\n\nStudent organizations\n\nNortheastern University offers students the opportunity to join various ethnic, cultural and political organizations, along with numerous honor societies, special interest groups, fraternities, and sororities. Northeastern has more than 16 varsity teams competing in the NCAA, over 30 club sports teams and over 400 student clubs and organizations. Among the student-run organizations are: Resident Student Association (RSA), Student Government Association (SGA), The Huntington News, Northeastern University Television (NUTV), Fraternity and Sorority Life (FSL), Social Justice Resource Center (SJRC), and the Council for University Programs (CUP) organize activities for Northeastern students as well as the surrounding community.\n\nNortheastern hosts six student-run a cappella groups on campus: three mixed ensembles (Distilled Harmony, The Downbeats, and The Nor\'easters), two treble ensembles (Pitch, Please! and Treble on Huntington), and one TTBB ensemble (UniSons). All groups regularly compete in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA). The Nor\'easters have performed at ICCA finals in New York City three times and won the ICCA title in 2013 and 2017. Pitch, Please! competed at ICCA finals in 2019. In 2020, The A Cappella Archive ranked The Nor\'easters and Pitch, Please! at #3 and #22 out of all ICCA-competing groups.\n\nAthletics and traditions\n\nSince 1927, Northeastern University\'s intercollegiate athletic teams have been known as the Huskies. Prior to 1927, Northeastern had no official mascot. A committee was formed to choose a mascot and members eventually settled on the Siberian Husky. In February 1927, a pup was selected from legendary Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race competitor Leonhard Seppala\'s kennel in Poland Springs, Maine. On March 4, 1927, King Husky I arrived at Northeastern in a campus celebration for which classes were canceled. Since then, live mascots have been a Siberian Husky breed, but after losing two mascots in three months in the early 1970s and after upheaval due to having live canine mascots, the university\'s administration was reluctant to continue the live mascot tradition. In 2005, the university resumed the live mascot tradition; the current live mascot is named Moses. The university\'s official costumed mascot is Paws.\n\nThe university\'s official colors are Northeastern red and black, with white often used as an alternate color. The university fight song, "All Hail, Northeastern," was composed by Charles A. Pethybridge, class of 1932. Since 2005, 14 of 18 Northeastern varsity sports teams primarily compete in NCAA Division I\'s Colonial Athletic Association (CAA). Northeastern maintains crosstown athletic rivalries primarily with Boston University, Harvard University and Boston College. It also regularly competes against in-state rival University of Massachusetts at Amherst.\n\nDuring its first decades, Northeastern initially had seven athletics teams: basketball, cross country, indoor track, outdoor track, crew and football. It has since expanded to more than 16 varsity teams.\n\nNortheastern sponsors the following sports teams:\n (M) Baseball\n (M), (W) Basketball\n (M), (W) Cross country\n (W) Field hockey\n (M), (W) Ice hockey (in Hockey East)\n (M), (W) Rowing (in Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women\'s Rowing Colleges)\n (M), (W) Soccer\n (W) Swimming and diving\n (M), (W) Track and field\n (W) Volleyball\n\nThe baseball, soccer, lacrosse and rugby teams compete at Parsons Field, a multipurpose facility located in Brookline, a mile and a half from the campus. The field\'s baseball diamond was named Friedman Diamond in 1988. The field hockey team, along with the Huskies\' track and field teams, compete at a sports complex about  away from campus in Dedham. Matthews Arena, which opened 1910, is home to the hockey and basketball programs. The 4,666-seat arena is located close to campus, just off Massachusetts Avenue. It is considered the world\'s oldest multi-purpose athletic building. Henderson Boathouse is home to the Huskies\' men\'s & women\'s rowing squads. The Henderson Boathouse is located on the Charles River near Soldiers Field Road in Allston. The university also maintains the Cabot Physical Education Center, which opened in 1954 and includes a basketball court; an indoor track and natatorium; the  Gries Center for Sports Medicine and Performance Center; a squash facility; and the William E. Carter Playground, a renovated community park on Columbus Avenue.\n\nThe baseball team was founded in 1921 and has since competed in one College World Series and played in the NCAA regionals seven times. It regularly competes in the Baseball Beanpot, a tournament contested annually between Boston College, Boston University, Harvard University, Northeastern University and University of Massachusetts at Amherst. It has won the tournament six times.\n\nThe history of the men\'s basketball team dates back to its first season in 1920–21. In its first year in the CAA, the team finished in 6th place out of 12 teams and advanced to the semifinals of the conference tournament. The CAA proved to be a competitive conference in the 2006 NCAA Basketball Tournament, as George Mason University advanced to the Final Four. The women\'s basketball program began in 1966. In 2007, its second year in the CAA, the women\'s track team captured the conference championship, while the volleyball team finished second. The women\'s basketball team won 10 more games in 2008 than the previous year, the biggest one-year turnaround in the CAA, and advanced to the tournament quarterfinals.\n\nThe Northeastern crew team consistently ranks as one of the top 10 teams in the nation. In the 2008 National Championship, the team made the Grand Finals and placed fourth behind University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Washington, and University of California, Berkeley, while defeating Brown University, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania and Harvard University.\n\nIn 2009, Northeastern eliminated its 74-year-old football program. From 1933 to 2009, the Northeastern Huskies football program\'s all-time record was 290-365-17 (.444), it produced 20 All-Americans and won the 2002 Atlantic 10 Conference championship. Citing sparse attendance, numerous losing seasons and the expense to renovate Parsons Field to an acceptable standard, the university\'s Board of Trustees voted on November 20, 2009, to end the football program. According to President Joseph Aoun, "Leadership requires that we make these choices. This decision allows us to focus on our existing athletic programs."\n\nIn addition to intercollegiate athletics, Northeastern offers 40 club sports, including sailing, judo, rugby, lacrosse, Olympic-Style taekwondo, alpine skiing, squash, cycling, and ultimate Frisbee. In 2005 the women\'s rugby team finished third in the nation in Division II, while in the same year the men\'s rugby team won the largest annual tournament in the United States. Recently, the women\'s rugby team competed and placed 11th at the Collegiate Rugby Championship. The men\'s lacrosse team began the 2008 season ranked in the Top 10 nationally. The men\'s and women\'s squash team finished the 2008 season ranked in the Top 20 nationally. In the 2008–09 academic year the Northeastern Club Field Hockey and Women\'s Basketball teams won their respective National Championships. From 2007 to 2009, the Northeastern Club Baseball team won three straight New England Club Baseball Association championships. The Club Taekwondo team placed 1st overall in Division II for the 2018–19 Season in the Eastern Collegiate Taekwondo Conference.\n\nOn May 25, 2010, the club baseball team defeated Penn State to win the National Club Baseball Association Division II World Series and the national championship.\n\nSome notable athletes have competed for Northeastern\'s athletic teams. Dan Ross played football at Northeastern long before setting the Super Bowl record for receptions in a game. Reggie Lewis still holds the men\'s basketball career scoring record. José Barea played point guard for the Huskies and averaged 21 points, 4.4 rebounds, 8.4 assists per game as a senior. Barea was signed by the Dallas Mavericks in 2006. Carlos Peña was named Major League Baseball\'s American League Comeback Player of the Year in 2007 and an AL Gold Glove winner in 2008. The U.S. Olympic women\'s ice hockey teams have included Northeastern alumni Shelley Looney and Chanda Gunn.\n\nIce hockey\nIce hockey has been one of Northeastern\'s most prominent athletic programs. The men\'s and women\'s hockey teams compete in the Hockey East conference. During the 2007–08 season, the men\'s team ranked as high at #7 in the country and held the top spot in the conference before finishing the season in sixth place in Hockey East. Both teams also participate in the annual ice hockey Beanpot tournament between the Boston area\'s four major college hockey schools. Northeastern\'s men\'s team has won the annual event 6 times in its 56-year history, while the women\'s team has captured the Beanpot 14 times. During the 2008–09 season, the men\'s team ranked as high as 3rd in the nation and held the top spot in Hockey East until the last weekend of the season; the team made the NCAA tournament for the first time since 1994, the Beanpot championship game for the first time since 2004, and goalie Brad Thiessen made the Hobey Hat Trick, only the second Northeastern player to do so. Northeastern won the 2018 Beanpot championship by defeating Boston College 3–0 in the first match and defeating Boston University 5–2 in the final match. The victory came after Northeastern attained the highest placement in the 2017-2018 standings of the Beanpot competitors. Northeastern defeated Boston College 4–2 to win the 2019 Beanpot and defeated Boston University 5–4 to win the 2020 Beanpot. In 2020, Northeastern beat Boston University 5–4 in overtime to win the Beanpot for the third year in a row.\n\nThe Beanpot also presents two awards to individual players. One is for the most valuable player and one is to the best goalie (determined by best save percentage). The second award is named the Eberly award after Glen and Dan Eberly who were goalies at Northeastern and Boston University. In addition to winning the Beanpot title, Northeastern took home both awards with the award for most valuable player being presented to Adam Gaudette and the Eberly Award being presented to Cayden Primeau who had a save percentage of .974 (making him the goalie with second highest save percentage to win the award in the 44 years the award has been given).\n\n Notable alumni and faculty \n\nNortheastern University has more than 275,000 living alumni based in over 180 countries around the world. Many alumni have distinguished themselves in a wide range of endeavors. They include Nikesh Arora, former senior VP & Chief Business Officer of Google and CEO of Palo Alto Networks; activist short seller Andrew Left; professional basketball player José Juan Barea; Starry Internet CEO Chet Kanojia; former Kodak CEO Jeff Clarke; investigative journalist and Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award recipient Russ Conway; former Massachusetts U.S. Senator Mo Cowan; Saturday Night Live original cast member and actress Jane Curtin; marathon runner Beatie Deutsch; former United States Ambassador to Ireland Richard Egan; filmmaker, musician, and writer Michael J. Epstein; Napster  co-founder Shawn Fanning; 10th Archivist of the United States David Ferriero; musician and video game developer Toby Fox; musician John Geils; Webby Award-honored media producer Alan Catello Grazioso; electronic dance music producer RL Grime; New Hampshire governor and U.S. Senator Maggie Hassan; Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey; Academy Award-nominated director and screenwriter Courtney Hunt; Space Shuttle Challenger astronaut Gregory Jarvis; fashion model and actress Beverly Johnson; Amin Khoury, founder of B/E Aerospace and CEO of KLX Energy Services Holdings; U.S. Olympian (bobsled) and silver medalist Steven Langton; University at Buffalo neurosurgery professor Elad Levy; professional basketball player Reggie Lewis; college president Thomas Michael McGovern; former NPR co-host of Car Talk Tom Magliozzi; actor David Marciano; EMC Corporation co-founder Roger Marino; CEO and Souq.com co-founder Ronaldo Mouchawar; comedian Patrice O\'Neal; Washington, D.C. politician Oye Owolewa; billionaire businessman James Pallotta; computer scientist, and researcher Andrea Grimes Parker; former Rhode Island U.S. Senator and governor John O. Pastore; professional baseball player Carlos Peña; Boston Dynamics CEO and founder Marc Raibert; National Football League All-Pro Dan Ross; filmmaker Bettina Santo Domingo; Twitter co-founder Biz Stone; actor Vaughn Taylor; world champion surfer Shaun Tomson; and television & radio talk show host Wendy Williams.\n\nNotable faculty\n Michael Dukakis, Former Governor of Massachusetts, Democratic Presidential Nominee in 1988, Professor of Political Science\n Matthias Felleisen, Author of How to Design Programs\'\', Professor of Computer Science\n Mary Florentine, psychoacoustician, Matthews Distinguished Professor\n Pran Nath, co-developer of the theory of supergravity\nNada Sanders,  Distinguished Professor of Supply Chain Management at the D’Amore-McKim School of Business\n\nSee also\n Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex\n Northeastern University (MBTA station)\n Ruggles (MBTA station)\n South End Grounds\n Timeline of Boston\n D\'Amore-McKim School of Business\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Northeastern University Athletics website\n\n \nEducational institutions established in 1898\nUniversities and colleges in Boston\nPrivate universities and colleges in Massachusetts\n1898 establishments in Massachusetts\nUniversities and colleges founded by the YMCA'},
 {'id': '459382',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Indian%20Americans',
  'title': 'List of Indian Americans',
  'text': 'Indian Americans are citizens or residents of the United States of America who trace their family descent to India. This article is a list of notable Indian Americans.\n\nAcademics\n\nNobel Prize recipients\n \n Har Gobind Khorana (1922-2011), Nobel Prize in Medicine, 1968\n Subramanyan Chandrasekhar (1910-1995), Nobel Prize for Physics, 1983\n Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences in 1998; Thomas W. Lamont University Professor and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University\n Venkatraman Ramakrishnan (b. 1952), Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2009; Former President of the Royal Society, (2015-2020)\n Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, 2019; Ford Foundation International Professor of Economics at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n\nDeans and presidents\n\n Rakesh Khurana (born 1967), dean of Harvard College \n Neeli Bendapudi (born 1962), president of University of Louisville \n Jamshed Bharucha (born 1956), former president of Cooper Union, (2011-2015); former dean of arts & sciences at Dartmouth College and former provost at Tufts University\n Vijay K. Dhir (born 1943), former dean of the UCLA Henry Samueli School of Engineering and Applied Science, (2003-2016)\n Ravi V. Bellamkonda (born 1968), Vinik Dean of Engineering at Duke University Edmund T. Pratt Jr. School of Engineering \n Dinesh D\'Souza (born 1961), former president of The King\'s College, New York, (2010-2012)\n Anjli Jain (born 1981), executive director of Campus Consortium\n Dipak C. Jain (born 1957), former dean of INSEAD, (2011-2013); former dean of the Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University, (2001-2009)\n Vistasp Karbhari, former president of the University of Texas at Arlington, (2013-2020)\n Pramod Khargonekar (born 1956), control theorist; vice chancellor of research at University of California, Irvine; former dean, College of Engineering at University of Florida, Gainesville, (2001-2009)\n Renu Khator (born 1958), chancellor of the University of Houston System and president of the University of Houston; former provost and senior vice president, University of South Florida\n Pradeep Khosla (born 1957), chancellor of the University of California, San Diego\n Vijay Kumar (born 1962), dean of School of Engineering and Applied Science at the University of Pennsylvania\n Geeta Menon,  dean emeritus of the undergraduate college at New York University Stern School of Business\n Nitin Nohria (born 1962), former dean of Harvard Business School, (2010-2020)\n Sethuraman Panchanathan, director of National Science Foundation and former executive vice president and chief research and innovation officer at Arizona State University\n Michael Rao, president of Virginia Commonwealth University\n S. Narasinga Rao, former dean of Jackson College of Graduate Studies and Research at the University of Central Oklahoma\n Beheruz Sethna, president of the University of West Georgia\n Paul Shrivastava, chief sustainability officer, and director, Sustainability Institute, Pennsylvania State University\n Molly Easo Smith, president of Manhattanville College\n Kumble R. Subbaswamy, chancellor of the University of Massachusetts Amherst\n Subra Suresh, president of Carnegie Mellon University\n Satish K. Tripathi, president of University at Buffalo\n Sundaraja Sitharama Iyengar, Ryder Professor of Computer Science and director of the School of Computing and Information Sciences at Florida International University, Miami\n S. Shankar Sastry, former dean of the UC Berkeley College of Engineering\n Bala V. Balachandran (born 1937), professor emeritus at Kellogg School of Management at Northwestern University; founder, dean and chairman of Great Lakes Institute of Management and executive professor & strategy adviser to the dean of the Bauer College of Business at University of Houston\nNagi Naganathan, president of Oregon Institute of Technology and former president and dean of the College of Engineering at the University of Toledo, (2001-2016)\nSri Zaheer, dean of Carlson School of Management at the University of Minnesota\n\nMathematicians\n Raj Chandra Bose (1901-1987), mathematician\n Shamit Kachru (b. 1970), Mathematical Physicist, professor at Stanford Institute for Theoretical Physics \n Akshay Venkatesh (b. 1981), Fields Medal laureate, mathematician\n Shreeram Shankar Abhyankar (1930-2012), mathematician, singularity theory and Abhyankar\'s conjecture of finite group theory\n Raghu Raj Bahadur (1924-1997), statistician\n Manjul Bhargava (b. 1974),  professor of mathematics at Princeton University and winner of Fields Medal, 2014\n Rahul Pandharipande (b. 1969), joined as Professor of Mathematics at Princeton University in 2002, he accepted a Professorship at ETH Zürich\n Sarvadaman Chowla (1907-1995), mathematician specializing in number theory\n Harish-Chandra (1923-1983), mathematician, IBM Von Neumann Professor at Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton\n Narendra Karmarkar (b. 1955), mathematician, inventor of Karmarkar algorithm\n Chandrashekhar Khare (b. 1968), professor of mathematics at the University of California Los Angeles\n G. S. Maddala (1933-1999), mathematician and economist best known for work in the field of econometrics\n Anil Nerode (b. 1932), mathematician, proved the Myhill-Nerode Theorem\n Ria Persad (b. 1974), mathematician, classical musician, and model\n K. C. Sreedharan Pillai (1920-1985), mathematician\n Calyampudi Radhakrishna Rao (b. 1920), professor at Penn State University and research professor at the University of Buffalo\n S. R. Srinivasa Varadhan (b. 1940), NYU mathematician who specialised in probability; winner of the Abel Prize and Steele Prize\n DJ Patil (b. 1974), mathematician & Data scientist\n Sucharit Sarkar (b. 1983), mathematician and topologist\n Sourav Chatterjee (b. 1979), statistician, mathematician and professor at Stanford\n Kannan Soundararajan (b. 1973), mathematician, professor at Stanford and IMO medalist.\n Subhash Khot (b. 1978), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist famous for Unique games conjecture.\n Sanjeev Arora (b. 1968), mathematician, theoretical computer scientist and Gödel Prize winner.\n\nEconomists\n  \n\n Abhijit Banerjee (b. 1961), Ford Foundation international professor of economics at MIT\n Amartya Sen (b. 1933), Thomas W. Lamont University Professor, and Professor of Economics and Philosophy at Harvard University.\n Pranab Bardhan (b. 1939), Professor Emeritus of Economics University of California, Berkeley\n Kaushik Basu (b. 1952), C. Marks Professor of International Studies and Professor of Economics Cornell University\n Jagdish Natwarlal Bhagwati (b. 1934), professor of economics at Columbia University\n Alok Bhargava (b. 1954), professor of economics at the University of Maryland School of Public Policy\n V. V. Chari (b. 1952), professor of economics at the University of Minnesota\n Raj Chetty (b. 1979), professor of economics at Harvard University\n Srikant Datar, The 11th Dean of Harvard Business School, took charge from January 1, 2021\n Avinash Kamalakar Dixit (b. 1944), professor of economics at Princeton University\n Gita Gopinath (b. 1971),  chief economist at the International Monetary Fund and Economic Adviser to the Chief Minister of Kerala\n Reema Harrysingh-Carmona (b. 1970), economist and the 5th First Lady of Trinidad and Tobago\n Sendhil Mullainathan (b. 1973), professor of economics, Harvard University\n Arvind Panagariya (b. 1952), professor of economics at Columbia University\n Debraj Ray (b. 1957), Silver Professor of Economics, New York University\n Ruchir Sharma, chief global strategist of asset management and emerging markets equity, Morgan Stanley Investment Management\n Arvind Subramanian (b. 1959), Chief Economic Advisor Government of India and formerly an economist at the International Monetary Fund\n\nProfessors and scholars in computer science or engineering and electrical engineering \n\n Amit Sheth, computer scientist at Wright State University in Dayton, Ohio\n Anant Agarwal, professor of electrical engineering and director of the Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence Laboratory at MIT\n Aravind Joshi (1929-2017), professor of computer and cognitive science at the University of Pennsylvania\n Arvind, Johnson Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n Arogyaswami Paulraj (b. 1944), professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University\n Ashwin Ram (b. 1960), head of artificial intelligence Amazon Alexa\n Avinash Kak (b. 1944), professor of electrical and computer engineering at Purdue University\n B. Jayant Baliga (b. 1948), inventor of the Insulated-gate bipolar transistor\n Bhubaneswar Mishra (b. 1961), professor of computer science, engineering & mathematics at Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences of New York University and visiting scholar at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory.\n Chandra Kintala (1948-2009), former Vice President Bell Labs\n Gopal H. Gaonkar (b. 1936), a professor of engineering at Florida Atlantic University\n Hari Balakrishnan, Fujitsu Chair Professor in the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nHardik Gohel, a faculty of computer science at University of Houston-Victoria\n K. Mani Chandy, professor of computer science at the California Institute of Technology\n Krishna Saraswat, professor of electrical engineering at Stanford University\n Madhu Sudan, professor of computer science at Harvard University\nPrabhat Mishra, professor of computer science and engineering at University of Florida\n Raj Jain, professor of computer science and engineering at Washington University School of Engineering and Applied Science\n Rangasami L. Kashyap (b. 1938), professor of electrical engineering at Purdue University\n Ricky J. Sethi, professor of computer science at Fitchburg State University; director of Research at The Madsci Network\n Saraju Mohanty, professor of computer science and engineering at the University of North Texas\nShree K. Nayar, professor of computer science at Columbia University\n Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California\n Shwetak Patel, professor of computer science and electrical engineering at the University of Washington\n Supriyo Datta, Thomas Duncan Distinguished Professor of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the Purdue University\n Thomas Kailath, professor of engineering at Stanford University\n Vijay Vazirani (b. 1957), professor of computer science at University of California, Irvine\nSuman Datta (b. 1973), professor of electrical engineering at Notre Dame University, regarded as one of the greatest pioneers in semiconductor research in USA.\n\nProfessors and scholars in other disciplines \n Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, professor at Northeastern University, electrochemistry; materials science;  lithium,  lithium ion, and lithium air batteries\n Nita Ahuja, Chief of Surgical Oncology at Johns Hopkins Hospital, surgeon-scientist, first women ever to lead this department at Johns Hopkins Hospital.\n Pulickel M. Ajayan, professor of material science at Rice University \n Salman Akhtar, professor at the Jefferson Medical College\n Muzaffar Alam, professor in South Asian Languages & Civilizations at the University of Chicago\n Akhil Amar, professor of law at Yale Law School\n Vikram Amar, professor of law at the University of California, Davis School of Law\n Abhay Ashtekar, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University\n Satya N. Atluri, Presidential Chair and University Distinguished Professor Texas Tech University, Recipient, Padma Bhushan in Science and Engineering in 2013 from the President of India\n P.S. Ayyaswamy, professor of dynamical engineering at the University of Pennsylvania\n Homi K. Bhabha, Anne F. Rothenberg Professor of English and American Literature and Language, and the Director of the Mahindra Humanities Center at Harvard University\n Mahzarin Banaji, professor at Harvard University, best known for exploring implicit racial and gender biases\n Sugata Bose, professor of history at Harvard University\n Ananda Mohan Chakrabarty, professor of microbiology at University of Illinois at Chicago\n Arup Chakraborty, Robert T. Haslam Professor focusing in biophysics, computational modeling and infectious disease at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n Naresh Dalal, Dirac Professor of Chemistry and Biochemistry at Florida State University\n Aswath Damodaran, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University\n Ashok Das, professor of physics at the University of Rochester\n Ashok Gadgil, professor of civil and environmental engineering at the University of California, Berkeley\n Rajit Gadh, professor of mechanical and aerospace engineering at University of California, Los Angeles\n Atul Gawande, professor in the Department of Health Policy & Management at Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health\n Swapan K. Gayen, professor of physics at the City University of New York\n Anirvan Ghosh, professor at the University of California, San Diego\n Radhika Govindrajan, associate professor of anthropology at University of Washington\n Vijay Govindarajan, Coxe Distinguished Professor at Dartmouth College\'s Tuck School of Business and the Marvin Bower Fellow at Harvard Business School \n Kausalya Hart, scholar of Tamil language at UC Berkeley\n Narayan Hosmane, professor of chemistry and biochemistry at Northern Illinois University\n Ravi Jagannathan, professor at the Kellogg School of Management\n Jainendra K. Jain, professor of physics at Pennsylvania State University\n Piyare Jain, professor emeritus at University at Buffalo\n Rakesh Jain, professor of tumor biology at Massachusetts General Hospital in the Harvard Medical School\n S. Lochlann Jain, associate professor in the Anthropology Department at Stanford University\n Sachin H. Jain, physician and health policy analyst at Harvard Medical School\n Nazir Jairazbhoy, professor of folk and classical music of South Asia at University of California at Los Angeles\n Yogesh Jaluria, Board of Governors Professor and Distinguished Professor at Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, in the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering.\n M. A. Muqtedar Khan, Professor in the Department of Political Science and International Relations at the University of Delaware\n Ravindra Khattree, professor of statistics at Oakland University\n Satish Nagarajaiah, professor of civil engineering and of mechanical engineering at Rice University.\n S. P. Kothari, Gordon Y Billard Professor of Management at MIT Sloan School of Management\n Shrinivas Kulkarni, professor of astrophysics and planetary science at Caltech\n Vijay Mahajan (academic), John P. Harbin Centennial Chair in Business and Professor of Marketing at University of Texas at Austin\n Raj Mittra, electrical engineering professor at Pennsylvania State University\n Jagadeesh Moodera, American physicist of Indian origin; senior research scientist at MIT\'s Francis Bitter Magnet Laboratory\n Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor in the department of English at the University of California, Berkeley\n C. M. Naim, scholar of Urdu language and literature at the University of Chicago\n V. Parmeswaran Nair, Physicist, currently a Distinguished Professor at City University of New York.\n Shrikanth Narayanan, award-winning researcher, inventor and educator at University of Southern California\n Jaishree Odin, professor, postmodern literary theorist at the University of Hawaii\n C.K. Prahalad, professor of corporate strategy at the Stephen M. Ross School of Business in the University of Michigan\n Vijay Prashad, professor of international studies at Trinity College\n Vilayanur S. Ramachandran, behavioral neurologist and psychophysicist; Professor with the Psychology and Neurosciences University of California, San Diego\n J. N. Reddy, professor and holder of the Oscar S. Wyatt Endowed Chair in Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University\n Anantanand Rambachan, professor of religion at St. Olaf College, Minnesota, United States\n K. R. Rao, professor at University of Texas at Arlington\n Subrata Roy, professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Florida\n Subir Sachdev, Herchel Smith Professor of Physics at Harvard University; Dirac Medal and National Academy of Sciences\n Nitin Samarth, Head and Professor of Physics, Pennsylvania State University\n Deepak Sarma, professor of religious studies at Case Western Reserve University\n Jagdish Sheth, professor of marketing at Goizueta Business School of Emory University\n Jagdish Shukla, professor at George Mason University\n Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, professor at Columbia University\n Marti G. Subrahmanyam, professor of finance at the Stern School of Business at New York University\n Sanjay Subrahmanyam, holder of Navin and Pratima Doshi Chair of Indian History and scholar at UCLA\n Mriganka Sur, professor of neuroscience at the MIT\n Medha Yodh, scholar of classical Indian dance at UCLA\n\nActivism\n\n Maya Ajmera, founder of The Global Fund for Children and author of more than 20 books for children\nKala Bagai, immigrant advocate and one of the first South Asian women in the United States\n Bhairavi Desai, founding member of the Taxi Workers Alliance in New York\n Kartar Dhillon, Ghadar Party, labor, and civil rights activist\n Mallika Dutt,  executive director of Breakthrough human rights organization\n Vijaya Lakshmi Emani (1958-2009), social activist\n Arun Manilal Gandhi, fifth grandson of Mohandas Gandhi\n Abraham George, philanthropist humanitarian, founder of The George Foundation (TGF)\n Gitanjali S. Gutierrez, lawyer who is defending Guantanamo prisoners\n Maya Harris, executive director of the ACLU of Northern California and sister of Kamala Harris\nSudhanshu Kaushik, founder of the North American Association of Indian Students and Young India Foundation\n Prerna Lal, immigrant rights advocate and attorney\n Girindra Mukerji, leader of one of the first Indian-American student protests against colonialism in 1908\n Kavita Ramdas, president and CEO of Global Fund for Women\n Dinesh Sharma (academic), leader, CRO and Director at Steam Works Studio and author in human development, human rights and global education, and professor at Walden University \n Inder Singh, chairman of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO)\n Bhagat Singh Thind, civil rights activist who defended the right of Indian immigrants to gain United States citizenship in United States v. Bhagat Singh Thind\n Urvashi Vaid, gay rights activist\n Thomas Abraham (b. 1948), founder president of the Global Organization of People of Indian Origin (GOPIO) as well as the National Federation of Indian American Associations (NFIA)\n Sakharam Ganesh Pandit (1875-1959), lawyer who argued against government efforts to revoke American citizenship for Indian emigrants \nJohn Prabhudoss (b.1964), current Chairman of the Federation of Indian American Christian Organizations (FIACONA)\nThenmozhi Soundararajan, American based Dalit rights activist\n\nArts and entertainment\n\n \n Ashok Amritraj, Hollywood film producer\n Salma Arastu, artist\n San Banarje, independent filmmaker\n Rina Banerjee, artist\n Prashant Bhargava, director\n Niala Boodhoo, journalist, host, and executive producer \n Jay Chandrasekhar, director, actor, comedian, and writer\n Shanthi Chandrasekar, visual artist\n Aneesh Chaganty, film director, screenwriter \n Sabu Dastagir, actor\n Nina Davuluri, Miss America 2014\n Param Gill, director, screenwriter and producer\n Kovid Gupta, bestselling author and screenwriter \n Reef Karim, actor, director, writer, and producer \n Neeraj Khemlani, producer for CBS News\' 60 Minutes\n Bharti Kirchner, writer\n Shirish Korde, artist\n Adam Bhala Lough, director, screenwriter\n Tirlok Malik, filmmaker and actor\n Benny Mathews, film and music video director\n Faris McReynolds, painter and musician\n Mira Nair, director and producer\n Sunil Nayar, TV writer and producer; producer of CSI: Miami\n Oopali Operajita, choreographer and Odissi and Bharatanatyam artiste; Distinguished Fellow, Carnegie Mellon University\n Yatin Patel, photographer and artist\n Mythili Prakash, Bharatanatyam dancer and choreographer\n Asha Puthli, singer-songwriter, producer and actress\n Sarayu Rao, actor and director\n Harish Saluja, filmmaker\n Stephanie Sengupta, producer and writer\n Mehul Shah, actor, director, writer, and producer\n Adi Shankar, producer and actor \n Naren Shankar, TV writer, producer and director; an executive producer of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation\n M. Night Shyamalan, director, filmmaker\n Tarsem Singh, director\n Rohit Gupta, director, producer\n Manick Sorcar, animator, artist, and producer\n Babu Subramaniam, director\n Tina Sugandh, entertainer\n Julie Titus, model, contestant on America\'s Next Top Model\n Serena Varghese, voice actress\n Prashanth Venkataramanujam, television writer, actor, and producer\n\nActors and actresses\n\n Karan Soni, actor\n Simran Judge, actor\n Ravi Patel, actor\n Devika Bhise, actress\n Waris Ahluwalia, fashion designer\n Aziz Ansari, actor and comedian\n Gabrielle Anwar, actress\n Erick Avari, actor\n Sunkrish Bala, actor\n Firdous Bamji, actor\n Purva Bedi, actress\n Summer Bishil, actress\n Karan Brar, film and TV actor\n Samrat Chakrabarti, actor\n Melanie Chandra, actress\n Michelle Khare, actress, Youtuber, and television host\n Sabu Dastagir, actor\n Sujata Day, actress\n Manish Dayal, actor\n Noureen DeWulf, actress\n Raja Fenske, actor\n Janina Gavankar, actress\n Namrata Singh Gujral, actress\n Sakina Jaffrey, actress\n Poorna Jagannathan, actress and producer\n Avan Jogia, actor\n Mindy Kaling, actress, writer, producer, comedian\n Ravi Kapoor, actor\n Rahul Kohli, actor \n Deep Katdare, actor\n Nivedita Kulkarni, actress\n Shishir Kurup, actor\n Nakul Dev Mahajan, Bollywood dancer and choreographer\n Sunny Leone, actor and former pornographic actress\n Tirlok Malik, actor\n Shelly Malil, film and TV actor\n Rizwan Manji, actor\n Aasif Mandvi, actor\n Sunita Mani, actress\n Ajay Mehta, TV actor\n Ajay Naidu, actor\n Anjul Nigam, actor\n\n Maulik Pancholy, actor\n Devika Parikh, actress\n Kal Penn, actor\n Danny Pudi, actor\n Ritesh Rajan, actor\n Sendhil Ramamurthy, actor\n Dileep Rao, actor\n Navi Rawat, actress\n Sonal Shah, actress\n Sheetal Sheth, actress\n Tiya Sircar, actress\n Omi Vaidya, actor\n Sugith Varughese,Indian-born Canadian-born actor with American citizenship\n Annet Mahendru, actress\n Nitya Vidyasagar, actress\n\nComedians\n\n Aziz Ansari\n Aman Ali\n Arj Barker\n Aasif Mandvi\n Jay Chandrasekhar\n Hari Kondabolu\nHasan Minhaj\n Nimesh Patel\n Adam Mamawala\n Rajiv Satyal\n Anish Shah\n Paul Varghese, appeared on Last Comic Standing\n Aparna Nancherla\n Lilly Singh\n\nCulinary arts\n Ashok Bajaj, restaurateur\n Vishwesh Bhatt, chef\n Maneet Chauhan, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author\n H. Jay Dinshah, founded the American Vegan Society\n Raghavan Iyer, chef, author, culinary educator\n Vikas Khanna, Michelin starred celebrity chef, restaurateur, author, filmmaker, and TV host\n Jehangir Mehta, celebrity chef, restaurateur, author\n Rajat Parr, sommelier\n Suvir Saran, Michelin starred chef and author\n Aarti Sequeira (b. 1978), TV host on Food Network\n Vikram Sunderam (b. 1967), chef and author\n Padma Lakshmi\n\nFashion designers\n Naeem Khan\n Vashtie Kola\n Bibhu Mohapatra\n Rachel Roy (b. 1974)\n Sachin & Babi\n\nModels\n Anchal Joseph, contestant on Cycle 7 of America\'s Next Top Model\n Pooja Kumar, model\n Akshay Kapoor, model, actor\n\nMedia\n\n Manu Raju (b. 1980), CNN journalist anchor, reporter\n Deepak Ananthapadmanabha, online journalist\n Sanjay Gupta, journalist, medical correspondent, neurosurgeon \n Rajiv Chandrasekaran, assistant managing editor for continuous news, The Washington Post; author of Imperial Life in the Emerald City \n Syma Chowdhry, television host, reporter, and producer\n Priya David, correspondent for CBS News\n Dinesh D\'Souza, political commentator, author and filmmaker. Former president of The King\'s College, New York\n Deepa Fernandes, host of the WBAI radio program Wakeup Call\n Deepti Hajela, journalist for the Associated Press\n Pico Iyer, author and journalist for Time magazine, Harper\'s Magazine, Condé Nast Traveler, and The New York Review of Books\n Shibani Joshi, reporter for the Fox Business Network\n Sukanya Krishnan, news anchor for CW 11 Morning News on WPIX\n Seema Mody, news reporter/anchor for CNBC\n Mish Michaels, meteorologist for the WBZ-TV Weather Team\n Vinita Nair, anchor of World News Now and America This Morning on ABC\n Kevin Negandhi, sports anchor for ESPN SportsCenter\n Reena Ninan, Middle East correspondent for Fox News Channel\n Asra Nomani, journalist\n Safiya Nygaard, YouTube beauty creator\n Uma Pemmaraju, senior news anchor for Fox News Channel\n Ramesh Ponnuru, senior editor of the National Review magazine\n Ash-har Quraishi, correspondent, WTTW Chicago; former KCTV Chief Investigative Reporter; former CNN Islamabad Bureau Chief\n Gopal Raju, pioneer of Indian American ethnic media\n Aneesh Raman, first Indian-American presidential speechwriter under President Barack Obama, former CNN Middle East correspondent\n Simran Sethi, journalist\n Alpana Singh, television personality\n Lakshmi Singh, NPR\'s national midday newscaster\n Hari Sreenivasan, correspondent for CBS News and the PBS NewsHour\n Sreenath Sreenivasan, Columbia University professor; WABC-TV technology reporter\n Ali Velshi, business news anchor for CNN\n Zain Verjee, CNN anchor\n Fareed Zakaria, columnist for Time magazine and host of Fareed Zakaria GPS on CNN\n Lilly Singh, YouTuber of Indian descent widely known as IISuperwomanII, ranked tenth on the Forbes list of the world\'s highest paid YouTube stars, ranked first on 2017 Forbes Top Influencers List in the entertainment category\n Liza Koshy, actress, YouTube comedian and television host\n\nMusicians\n\n Rick Parashar (1963-2014), producer\n Sandeep Das (b. 1971), won the Grammy award for Best World Music Album, at the 59th Grammy Awards, 2017\n Sonika Vaid, Indian-American singer\n Bamboo Shoots, dance-rock band\n 6ix, record producer\n Rajiv Dhall, Indian-American singer\n Sid Sriram, Indian-American singer\n Jeff Bhasker, producer\n Nicki Minaj, rapper and singer-songwriter\n Sameer Bhattacharya, one of two guitarists in the Texas alternative rock band Flyleaf\n Das Racist, alternative hip hop group; two of the three members are Indian\n Anoop Desai, finalist on the eighth season of American Idol\n Falu, singer and songwriter\t\n Sameer Gadhia, lead vocalist in Young the Giant\n Heems, rapper\n Ravi Hutheesing, singer-songwriter, guitarist \n iLoveMakonnen, rapper\t\n Daya, singer\n Sandeep Khurana, new age music and world music composer \n Raja Kumari, singer and songwriter\n Vijay Iyer, jazz musician and composer\n Sunny Jain, dhol player, drummer, and composer\t\n Norah Jones, singer, songwriter and actress; winner of multiple Grammy Awards\n Rajan Somasundaram, Music Composer, Songwriter and multi instrumentalist \n Karsh Kale, Indian producer, composer and musician\n Tony Kanal, two-time Grammy Award winner, bass player for No Doubt\n Savan Kotecha, songwriter\n KSHMR, electronic musician, record producer\n Arun Luthra, jazz musician\n Sanjaya Malakar, finalist on the sixth season of  American Idol\n Mathai, finalist on season 2 of The Voice\n Zarin Mehta, executive director of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra\n Zubin Mehta, former conductor, New York Philharmonic Orchestra; receiver of a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame\n Sanjay Mishra, guitarist and composer\n Vidya Vox, YouTube musician\t\n Vasant Rai, performer of Indian music\t\n Paul Sabu, producer\n Amar Sandhu, singer\t\n Shaheen Sheik, songwriter\t\n Bikram Singh, singer\n Mickey Singh, Indian-born singer from Detroit, MI \n Ramesh Srivastava, singer \n Ambi Subramaniam, violinist and composer\n Bindu Subramaniam, singer-songwriter\n Kim Thayil, named among 100th greatest guitarists of all time by Rolling Stone\n Zoya, California-based singer and guitarist\n Nav, Canada-based rapper and producer\n Sanjay Patel, animator and director and also illustrator of Pixar\n Shirish Korde (b. 1945), composer\n Dave Baksh (b. 1980), guitarist of punk band Sum 41\n Raveena Aurora, alternative singer\n\nBusiness\n\n Parag Agrawal, CEO of Twitter\n Anu Aiyengar, managing director of North American mergers and acquisitions of JPMorgan Chase & Co\n Nikesh Arora (b. 1968), CEO, Palo Alto Networks, former Google executive and COO, Softbank\n Samir Arora, former CEO of Mode Media\n Ramani Ayer, former chairman and CEO of The Hartford Financial Services Group\n Prith Banerjee, managing director of Global Technology R&D at Accenture\n Somen Banerjee, co-founder of Chippendales\n Ajaypal Singh Banga, president and CEO of MasterCard\n Mahaboob Ben Ali (1927-2009), co-founder of Ben\'s Chili Bowl\n Manoj Bhargava, founder and CEO of Innovations Ventures LLC; the company is known for producing the 5-hour Energy drink\n Aneel Bhusri, co-founder and CEO of Workday, Inc.; partner at Greylock Partners; member of the board of directors of Intel\n Jagjeet (Jeet) S. Bindra, director of Edison International, Southern California Edison\n Amar Bose, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation\n Vanu Bose, American electrical engineer, founder of Vanu Inc, son of Amar Bose\n Sant Singh Chatwal, owner of the Bombay Palace chain of restaurants and Hampshire Hotels & Resorts\n Manu Daftary, money manager \n Bharat Desai, co-founder and chairman of Syntel\n Gururaj Deshpande, founder of Sycamore Networks\n Francis deSouza, CEO of Illumina\n Vinod Dham, designed the Intel Pentium Chip Processor; the "father of the Pentium Chip"\n Rono Dutta, former president of United Airlines, chairman of Air Sahara\n Rhona Fox, founder of Fox Fuse\n Rakesh Gangwal, former CEO and chairman of US Airways Group\n Asim Ghosh, president and chief executive officer at Husky Energy\n Ajit Gupta, founder and CEO of Speedera Networks, Aryaka Networks\n Rajat Gupta, former managing director of McKinsey & Company\n Rajiv Gupta, CEO of SkyHigh Networks, former general manager of Hewlett-Packard\n Umang Gupta, former CEO of Keynote Systems, Inc.\n Ajit Jain, president of Berkshire Hathaway Reinsurance Group\n Anjli Jain, founder and Managing Partner of EVC Ventures\n Anshu Jain, President of Cantor Fitzgerald and former co-CEO of Deutsche Bank\n Sanjay Jha, CEO of Global Foundries and former CEO of Motorola Mobile Devices\n Vyomesh Joshi, former executive vice president of Imaging and Printing Group, Hewlett-Packard\n John Kapoor, founder and executive chairman of Insys Therapeutics\n Vinod Khosla, founder of Khosla Ventures, co-founder of Sun Microsystems\nJay Vijayan, founder of Tekion Corp., former CIO of Tesla\n Arvind Krishna, CEO of IBM\n Anil Kumar, former senior partner and chairman, Asia Center of McKinsey & Company\n Sanjay Kumar, former CEO of Computer Associates International\n Thomas Kurian, CEO of Google Cloud, former President of product development at Oracle Corporation\n Sachin Lawande, president and CEO of Visteon\n Krishna Maharaj, businessman convicted of murder\n Bobby Mehta, former CEO and vice chairman of HSBC North America and former CEO of Transunion Company\n Sonny Mehta, Chairman/Editor in chief of Alfred A. Knopf\n Victor Menezes, chairman of Clearing House Association, former chairman and CEO of Citibank \n Satya Nadella, CEO of Microsoft\n Ranji H. Nagaswami, chief investment officer for AllianceBernstein Fund Investors\n Lakshmi Narayanan, vice chairman and former CEO of Cognizant Corporation\n Shantanu Narayen, CEO of Adobe Systems\n Indra Nooyi, former chairman and CEO of PepsiCo\n Dinesh Paliwal, chairman and CEO of Harman International\n Vikram Pandit, former CEO of Citigroup\n Suhas Patil, entrepreneur, venture capitalist & Founder of Cirrus Logic\n Sundar Pichai, CEO of Google, Alphabet Inc\n Prakash Puram, president and CEO of iXmatch\n Vivek Ranadivé, former CEO of TIBCO Software\n Sashi Reddi, serial entrepreneur, venture capitalist, angel investor, technologist, and philanthropist\n Kanwal Rekhi, former EVP and CTO of Novell\n Ashutosh Saxena, Founder & CEO of Caspar.AI, prolific author in the area of AI, and former Professor of Computer Science at Cornell University.\n Abbas Sadriwala, chairman and CEO of the Fort Lauderdale-based Wireless Logix Group\n Arun Sarin, former president of Vodafone\n Niraj Shah, CEO and co-founder of Wayfair\n Deven Sharma, former president of Standard & Poor\'s\n Ram Shriram, venture fund capitalist and one of the first investors in Google\n Pradeep Sindhu, founder and CTO of Juniper Networks\n K. R. Sridhar, founder and CEO of Bloom Energy\n Rajeev Suri, CEO of Nokia\n Abhi Talwalkar, president and CEO of LSI Corporation\n Thiru Vikram, CEO of Buffalo Automation\n Romesh Wadhwani, founder, chairman and CEO of Symphony Technology Group\n Padmasree Warrior, CEO of NIO (car company)\n\nCrime\n\nSomen Banerjee, pleaded guilty to attempted arson, racketeering, and murder for hire\nSant Singh Chatwal,  pled guilty to giving illegal campaign contributions for the Democratic Party\nGurmeet Singh Dhinsa, convicted of murder, racketeering, and kidnapping\nSyed Ghulam Nabi Fai, conspiracy to defraud the United States by violation of the Foreign Agents Registration Act\nRajat Gupta, convicted of four criminal felony counts of conspiracy and securities fraud in the Galleon scandal\nNoshir Gowadia, convicted of espionage for China\nAnand Jon, convicted of rape\nJohn Kapoor, convicted of racketeering and conspiracy to commit wire fraud\nSubhash Kapoor, convicted of art theft and grand larceny\nAnil Kumar, pleaded guilty to insider trading\nShelley Malil, convicted of attempted premeditated murder and assault\nNirav Modi, fugitive charged with corruption, fraud, and money laundering\nJayant Patel, convicted of fraud and manslaughter\nPurvi Patel, convicted of feticide\nLakireddy Bali Reddy, convicted of immigration fraud and human trafficking\nPrakashanand Saraswati, fugitive and convicted child molester\nRavi Singh, convicted of four felony counts for illegally influencing the San Diego mayoral election\nSabrina De Sousa, convicted of kidnapping\nSneha Anne Philip, missing person\n\nLiterature\n\n Abraham Verghese, doctor and author; wrote In My Own Country and My Tennis Partner\n Agha Shahid Ali, poet\n Aimee Nezhukumatathil, poet\n Amitav Ghosh, Indo-nostalgic writer and winner of Prix Médicis étranger\n Anita Desai, novelist; shortlisted for the Booker prize three times; mother of Kiran Desai\nAnju Hasan, author, of Neti,Neti\n Anu Garg, author, speaker, and computer engineer\n Arnold Rampersad, biographer and literary critic\n Bhaskar Sunkara, political writer, founding editor and publisher of Jacobin and current publisher of London\'s Tribune\n Bharati Mukherjee, author, professor \n Chitra Banerjee Divakaruni, author\n Davan Maharaj, journalist and former editor-in-chief and publisher of the Los Angeles Times\n Dhan Gopal Mukerji, first successful Indian man of letters in the US; winner of the Newbery Medal, 1928\n Gaiutra Bahadur, author\n Ghalib Shiraz Dhalla, author\n Indira Viswanathan Peterson, literary critic\n Indu Sundaresan, author\nIsmat Chughtai, author\n Janaki Ram, author\n Jhumpa Lahiri, Pulitzer Prize-winning author\n Kaavya Viswanathan, novelist\n Kiran Desai, winner of the 2006 Man Booker Prize\n Parag Khanna, author\n Paul Kalanithi, author\n Rajiv Joseph, playwright\n Ramya Ramana, poet\n Ravi Batra, bestselling author and economist\n Ravi Shankar, poet\n Rishi Reddi, author\n Roshani Chokshi novelist\nRupi Kaur, poet\n S. T. Joshi, literary critic\n Salman Rushdie, novelist and essayist\n Saumitra Saxena, Hindi poet, Bharatiya Jnanpith Navlekhana Award winner\n Shauna Singh Baldwin, novelist, winner of the Commonwealth Writers\' Prize\n Siddharth Katragadda, author, filmmaker, artist\n Siddhartha Mukherjee, physician, scientist and writer, 2011 winner of the Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction\n Susham Bedi, author\n Thrity Umrigar, author of Bombay Time\n Tulika Mehrotra, author, journalist\n Usha Haley, author\n Vijay Prashad, Marxist writer, director for Tricontinental, Chief editor for LeftWord Books, written 30 books\n Vijay Seshadri, Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and essayist\n Vikram Seth, poet, novelist, travel writer, librettist, children\'s writer, biographer and memoirist\n\nMilitary\n\n Uday Singh Taunque, first Indian American to die in Operation Iraqi Freedom; posthumously awarded Bronze Star and Purple Heart gallantry awards \n Sunita Williams (b. 1965), astronaut and former Navy officer\n\nPolitics\n\nElected officials\n\nRam Villivalam- State Senator, 8th District- Illinois (Democrat)\n John Abraham, former mayor of Teaneck, New Jersey (Republican) \n Suhas Subramanyam (b. 1986), Virginia\'s 87th House of Delegates district Representative (Democrat)\n Saqib Ali, former member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Harvinder "Harry" Anand, mayor of Laurel Hollow, New York (Republican) \n Sam Arora, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Kumar P. Barve, member of the Maryland House of Delegates, former (majority leader) (Democratic), the first Indian American elected to a state legislature \n Ravinder Bhalla, mayor, Hoboken, Hudson County, New Jersey (Democratic), the first turban-wearing Sikh American mayor in the United States to be elected by a municipality\'s residents, in November 2017\n Satveer Chaudhary, former Minnesota State Senator (Democratic)\n Upendra J. Chivukula, member of the New Jersey General Assembly (Democratic) \n Swati Dandekar (b. 1951), Iowa State Senator (Democratic) \n Mervyn M. Dymally, 41st Lieutenant Governor of California (1975–1979);  member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1981–1993) (Democratic) \n Kashmir Gill, mayor of Yuba City, California (Republican)\n Jay Goyal, member of the Ohio State Representative (Democratic) \n Raj Goyle, member of the Kansas State Representative (Democratic) \n Faz Husain, first native of India to win elected office in Michigan (Democratic) \n Bobby Jindal, former Governor of Louisiana; vice chairman of the Republican Governors Association (Republican)\n Nimi McConigley, first Indian American women to serve in any American State legislature served in the Wyoming State Legislature from 1994 until 1996(Republican)\n Ameya Pawar, served as the alderman for the 47th Ward of the City of Chicago \n Aruna Miller, member of the Maryland House of Delegates (Democratic) \n Kshama Sawant, member of the Seattle City Council.\n Balvir Singh, first Indian American member, Board of Chosen Freeholders, Burlington County, New Jersey, first Sikh American to win a countywide election in New Jersey, in November 2017 (Democratic)\n Jenifer Rajkumar, Lower Manhattan district leader and candidate for the New York State Assembly (Democratic)\n\nFederal elected officials\n\n Kamala Harris (b. 1964), current Vice President of the United States, former and 32nd Attorney General of California, former U.S. Senator from California\n Ami Bera, U.S. Representative for California\'s 7th congressional district\n Raja Krishnamoorthi, U.S. Representative for Illinois\'s 8th congressional district\n Ro Khanna, U.S. Representative for California\'s 17th congressional district\n Pramila Jayapal, U.S. Representative for Washington\'s 7th congressional district\n Dalip Singh Saund, first Asian and Indian American member of the U.S. House of Representatives from California\n\nCivil servants \n\n Arif Alikhan (b. 1968), former Assistant Secretary for Policy Development at the U.S. Department of Homeland Security; former Deputy Mayor for Homeland Security and Public Safety for the City of Los Angeles; former senior adviser to Attorneys General John Ashcroft and Alberto Gonzales\n Preeta D. Bansal (b. 1965), member and past chair of the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom; former Solicitor General of New York\n Preet Bharara, United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York\n Cathy Bissoon, judge for the United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania (Democratic)\n Nisha Desai Biswal, current Assistant Secretary of State for South and Central Asian Affairs\n Saikat Chakrabarti, chief of staff to Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, the U.S. Representative from New York\'s 14th congressional district representing parts of The Bronx and Queens in New York City\n Joy Cherian, first Asian head of the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission\n Aneesh Chopra, Federal Chief Technology Officer of the U.S.\n Har Dayal, founder of the Ghadar Party\n Sabrina De Sousa, ex-CIA officer; is suing the US government for diplomatic immunity\n Gurbir Grewal, Bergen County, New Jersey prosecutor, first Sikh American county prosecutor in the U.S.,\n Vanita Gupta, Former Lawyer for ACLU and current United States Associate Attorney General\n Nikki Haley, former U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations; former Governor of South Carolina (Republican)\n Rashad Hussain, U.S. Special Envoy to the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation\n Neel Kashkari, former interim Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Stability in the United States Department of the Treasury (Republican)\n Neal Katyal, Solicitor General of the United States\n Atul Keshap, U.S. Ambassador to Sri Lanka and Maldives\n Gopal Khanna, chief information officer of Minnesota\n Narayana Kocherlakota, president of Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis\n Kris Kolluri, New Jersey Commissioner of Transportation\n\n Vivek Kundra, Federal Chief Information Officer of the US\n Arun Majumdar, director of the U.S. Department of Energy\'s Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy\n Raj Mukherji (b. 1984), Deputy Mayor of Jersey City, New Jersey; candidate for the New Jersey State Legislature\n Shekar Narasimhan, co-chair of the Democratic National Committee Indo-American Council\n Ajit Pai, serving as chairman at the Federal Communications Commission\n Farah Pandith, Special Representative to Muslim Communities for the United States Department of State\n Rachel Paulose, former United States Attorney for the District of Minnesota\n Rajiv Shah (b. 1973), former Under Secretary of Agriculture for Research, Education, and Economics; former Administrator of USAID; President, Rockefeller Foundation\n Sonal Shah, member of the Obama-Biden Transition Project advisory board\n Islam A. Siddiqui, Chief Agricultural Negotiator in the Office of the United States Trade Representative\n Sabita Singh, first judge of Indian descent in Massachusetts history\n Subra Suresh, director of National Science Foundation\n Vinai Thummalapally (b. 1954), served as U.S. Ambassador to Belize\n Richard Verma (b. 1968), Assistant Secretary for Legislative and Intergovernmental Affairs, at the Department of State\n Surya Yalamanchili, 2010 US Congressional candidate\n\nFederal judges\n Vince Girdhari Chhabria, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of California (Democratic)\nNicholas Ranjan, District Judge, United States District Court for the Western District of Pennsylvania\n Neomi Rao, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit\n Manish S. Shah, judge of the United States District Court for the Northern District of Illinois\n Srikanth Srinivasan, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit\n Indira Talwani, judge of the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts\n Amul Thapar, judge of the United States Court of Appeals for the Sixth Circuit (Republican)\n\nReligion\n\n Chitrabhanu Jain, founded the Jain Meditation International Center in Manhattan, New York City\n Padmanabh Jaini, scholar of Jainism\n Sushil Kumarji, Jain Acharya\n Anantanand Rambachan, Hindu scholar, author, and professor of religion at St. Olaf College\n Prem Rawat, also known as Guru Maharaji Ji, head of the Divine Light Mission and later organizations\n Eboo Patel, member of New Faith Advisory Council\n Muzammil Siddiqi, Ph.D., chairman, Fiqh Council of North America\n Ravi Zacharias, Christian evangelist and apologist\n\nScience and technology\n\n Yellapragada Subbarow (1895-1948), pioneering biochemist who discovered ATP, the human body\'s energy molecule.\n Ajay Bhatt (b. 1957), co-inventor of the USB; Chief Client Platform Architect at Intel\n Ajit V. Pai, chairman of the United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC)\n Ajit Varki, physician-scientist\nAmar Gopal Bose, PhD in electrical engineering, founder and chairman of Bose Corporation \nBimal Kumar Bose, pioneer in power electronics\nAmit Goyal, scientist and inventor\n Amit Singhal, Google Fellow, the designation the company reserves for its elite master engineers in the area of "ranking algorithm"\n Amitabha Ghosh, the only Asian on NASA\'s Mars Pathfinder mission\n Anil Dash, blogger and technologist\n Anirvan Ghosh, neuroscientist\n Govindjee, biochemist\n Arjun Makhijani, electrical and nuclear engineer; president of the Institute for Energy and Environmental Research\n Arun Netravali, scientist; former president of Bell Labs; former CTO of Lucent; pioneer of digital technology, including HDTV and MPEG4\n Arvind Rajaraman, theoretical physicist and string theorist\n Avtar Saini, co-led the development of the Pentium processor Intel; holds seven patents related to microprocessor design\n Bedabrata Pain, co-inventor of the active pixel sensor\n C. Kumar N. Patel, developed the carbon dioxide laser, used as a cutting tool in surgery and industry\n Deepak Pandya, neuroanatomist\n Arati Prabhakar, director of DARPA\n Dhairya Dand, inventor and artist\n DJ Patil, Chief Data Scientist of the United States Office of Science and Technology Policy\n George Sudarshan, physicist, author; first to propose the existence of the tachyon\n Jogesh Pati, theoretical physicist at the University of Maryland, College Park\n Kalpana Chawla, NASA space shuttle astronaut, who died in space shuttle blast\n Khem Shahani, microbiologist who conducted pioneer research on probiotics; discovered the DDS-1 strain of Lactobacillus acidophilus\n Krishan Sabnani, engineer and senior vice president of the Networking Research Laboratory at Alcatel-Lucent Bell Labs in New Jersey\n Krishna Bharat, principal scientist at Google; created Google News\t\n Kuzhikalail M. Abraham, pioneer in lithium and lithium ion battery technologies, professor, Northeastern university, Boston, Massachusetts and president, E-KEM Sciences, Needham, Massachusetts\n Mahadev Satyanarayanan, computer science professor at Carnegie Mellon University; pioneer of research in mobile and pervasive computing\n Mani Lal Bhaumik, contributor to excimer laser technology\n Mathukumalli Vidyasagar, control theorist\n Narinder Singh Kapany, engineer, the "father of fiber optics"\n Nalini Nadkarni, ecologist who pioneered the study of Costa Rican rain forest canopies\n Noshir Gowadia, design engineer\n Om Malik, technology journalist and blogger\n Pran Nath, theoretical physicist at Northeastern University\n Pranav Mistry, Sixth Sense Project\n Raj Reddy, founder of the Robotics Institute at Carnegie Mellon University; winner of the Turing Award\n Raja Chari, astronaut chosen for Artemis moon mission\n Rajeev Motwani, professor, angel investor\n Rajiv Dutta, technology manager\n Ramesh K. Agarwal, aviation pioneer; William Palm Professor of Engineering at Washington University\n Ramesh Raskar, Femto-camera inventor, MIT Professor\n Rangaswamy Srinivasan, member of the Inventors\' Hall of Fame for pioneering work on excimer laser surgery\n Ruchi Sanghvi, first female engineer of Facebook; former VP of Operations, Dropbox\n Sabeer Bhatia, co-founder of Hotmail\t\n Samir Mitragotri, professor of chemical engineering and bioengineering at University of California, Santa Barbara\n Satya N. Atluri, aerospace and mechanics, Excellence in Aviation Medal, FAA, 1998; Recipient of Padma Bhushan in 2013 in Science & Engineering from the President of India, elected to membership to National Academies of Engineering, USA (1996) and India (1997)\n Salman Khan, founder of Khan Academy\n Sharmila Bhattacharya, head of the Biomodel Performance and Behavior laboratory at NASA Ames Research Center\n VA Shiva Ayyadurai, inventor, scientist, former guest lecturer at MIT\n Siddhartha Mukherjee, scientist, physician, winner of Pulitzer Prize for General Non-Fiction\n Siva S. Banda, aerospace engineer and researcher, recipient of a Silver Medal from the Royal Aeronautical Society, a Presidential Rank Award, and elected to membership in the National Academy of Engineering\n Subhash Kak, head of the Computer Science department at Oklahoma State University\n Subrah Iyar, co-founder and CEO of Webex Communications\n Subrata Roy, plasma physicist, professor of aerospace engineering at University of Florida, inventor of the Wingless Electromagnetic Air Vehicle\n Sunita Williams, NASA astronaut\n Shya Chitaley - Paleo botanist\n Swapan Chattopadhyay, particle accelerator physicist \nSwati Mohan, NASA space engineer \n Thomas Anantharaman, computer statistician specializing in Bayesian inference\n Thomas Zacharia, computational scientist\n V. Mohan Reddy, paediatric cardiothoracic surgeon at Stanford\n Vamsi Mootha, physician-scientist and computational biologist\t\n Vic Gundotra, former senior vice president, Engineering for Google\n Vijay Raghunath Pandharipande, physicist\n Vineeta Rastogi, public health worker\nSirisha Bandla, space engineer\n\nMedicine\n\n Amit Patel, cardiovascular surgeon and stem cell researcher; first person to inject stem cells directly into the heart\n Anita Goel, Harvard-MIT physicist, physician; expert in nanobiophysics and nanotechnology; chairman and CEO of Nanobiosym; inventor of Gene-RADAR technology\n Ashutosh Tewari, professor of urology at New York Presbyterian Hospital; prostate cancer surgeon\n Atul Gawande, general and endocrine surgeon, professor, medical author, and National Book Award finalist\n Balamurali Ambati, world\'s youngest doctor, at age 17\n Deepak Chopra, alternative medicine advocate, author and public speaker\n E. Premkumar Reddy, oncologist; director of Fels institute of cancer research and molecular biology at Temple University\n Harvinder Sahota, cardiologist; inventor of the FDA-approved perfusion balloon angioplasty; holds patents of 24 other medical inventions\n Inder Verma, Professor of Molecular Biology in the Laboratory of Genetics at Salk Institute for Biological Studies and University of California, San Diego\n Joia Mukherjee, associate professor with the Division of Global Health Equity at the Brigham and Women\'s Hospital and the Department of Global Health and Social Medicine at Harvard Medical School \n Lall Ramnath Sawh, urologist and a pioneer of kidney transplantation in the Caribbean\n Paul Antony, MD, MPH, chief medical officer for the Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA)\n Ragavendra R. Baliga, FACC, FACP, FRCP (Edin), Professor of Medicine at; Ohio State University College of Medicine\n Sangeeta Bhatia, Harvard-MIT doctor and scientist; engineer of artificial liver cells\n Sanjay Gupta, neurosurgeon; CNN chief medical correspondent;\n Vivek Murthy (b. 1977), 19th and former Surgeon General of the United States; former vice admiral of U.S. Public Health Service Commissioned Officer Corps\n Aseem Shukla (b. 1972), Professor of Surgery (Urology) at the Perelman School of Medicine at the University of Pennsylvania, co-founder of Hindu American Foundation.\n\nSports\n\n Prakash Amritraj (b. 1983), tennis player (born in the US)\n Stephen Amritraj (b. 1984), tennis player\n Sanjay Beach (b. 1966), former NFL wide receiver; played for the San Francisco 49ers and the Green Bay Packers\n Mohini Bhardwaj, second Indian American Olympic medalist, 2004 Summer Olympics silver medalist in gymnastics\n Vinay Bhat, chess grandmaster\n Raj Bhavsar, third Indian American Olympic medalist, 2008 Summer Olympics bronze medalist in the team gymnastics competition\n Shaun Bridgmohan, jockey\n Brandon Chillar, NFL player, linebacker for the Green Bay Packers (father of Indian descent)\n Sean Desai (b. 1983), NFL coach and defensive coordinator for the Chicago Bears\n Jignesh Desai, cricketer\n Sonjay Dutt, TNA pro wrestler\n The Great Khali, WWE pro wrestler\n Alexi Grewal, first Indian American to win an Olympic medal, gold medalist in 1984 Summer Olympics in cycling\n Sunil Gulati, former President of the United States Soccer Federation\n Carlos Cordeiro, President of the United States Soccer Federation\n Amjad Khan, cricketer \n Ibrahim Khaleel, cricketer\n Noshtush Kenjige, cricketer \n Thirunavukkarasu Kumaran, cricketer\n Anil Lashkari, cricketer \n Sanjay Lal, wide receivers coach for the Dallas Cowboys \n Manny Malhotra, NHL hockey player\n Rajiv Maragh, jockey\n Aditya Mishra, cricketer\n Sushil Nadkarni, American cricketer\n Ami Parekh, figure skater\n Japen Patel, cricketer \n Mrunal Patel, cricketer \n Sagar Patel, cricketer\n Timil Patel, cricketer\n Laxmi Poruri, tennis player\n Abhimanyu Rajp, cricketer\n Rajeev Ram, tennis player\n Annand Mahendra "Victor" Ramdin, professional poker player and philanthropist\n Sunitha Rao, tennis player\n Srini Santhanam, cricketer \n Jessy Singh, cricketer\n Monank Patel, USA cricket captain\n Saurabh Netravalkar, USA cricket captain\n Jaskaran Malhotra, cricketer\n Shikha Uberoi, tennis player\n Neha Uberoi, tennis player\n Shiva Vashishat, cricketer\n Adeel Alam, professional wrestler best known ring name Mustafa Ali (Indian mother)\n Abhimanyu Mishra, chess grandmaster\n\nYoga\n Bikram Choudhury (b. 1944), yoga guru\n Dipa Ma, yoga teacher\n Harbhajan Singh Yogi, introduced Kundalini Yoga and Sikhism to the US\n\nSee also\n Non-resident Indian and Person of Indian Origin\n India–United States relations\n\nReferences \n\nLists of American people of Asian descent\n\nAmerican\nLists of American people by ethnic or national origin\nLists of people by ethnicity\nAmerican'}]

Inverse Document Frequency

@cache
def inverse_document_frequency(term: str) -> float:
    num_docs_with_term = 0
    for item in nuwiki:
        if term in item["text"].split():
            num_docs_with_term += 1
    if num_docs_with_term == 0:
        return 0
    return math.log(len(nuwiki) / num_docs_with_term)

inverse_document_frequency("the"), inverse_document_frequency("computer"), inverse_document_frequency("person"), inverse_document_frequency("Khoury")

(0.008250871889995596,
 2.5191766143169554,
 2.6733272941442134,
 5.158233943932214)

def bad_rank_by_tf_idf(query: str, n: int) -> list:
    """
    Not correct.
    """
    terms = query.split()
    ranked_docs = sorted(
        nuwiki,
        key=lambda doc: sum(term_frequency(term, doc['text']) * inverse_document_frequency(term) for term in terms),
        reverse=True
    )
    return ranked_docs[:n]

bad_rank_by_tf_idf("Northeastern computer science", 3)

[{'id': '27792666',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoury%20College%20of%20Computer%20Sciences',
  'title': 'Khoury College of Computer Sciences',
  'text': 'The Khoury College of Computer Sciences is the computer science school of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science when it was founded in 1982.  It addition to computer science, it specializes in data science and cybersecurity. The college was also among the first to offer an information assurance degree program. \n\nKhoury College offers Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Master of Science (M.S.) and doctoral degrees in computer science, as well as undergraduate and graduate degrees in interdisciplinary, computer-related fields. Some 1,000 master\'s and 133 doctoral candidates are enrolled in the college.\n\nHistory\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Northeastern University made about 38 program and curriculum changes to improve the university. Between 1979 and 1981, Northeastern organized a blue-ribbon panel of educators and experts, including industry leaders from Bell Labs, University of California, Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Digital Equipment Corporation, to develop a plan to advance education and research in the emerging field of computer science. In 1982, Northeastern formally established the College of Computer Science (CCS), the first U.S. college devoted to computer science and the first new college at Northeastern in 17 years. Paul Kalaghan, director of Academic Computer Services, was named its first dean. The college was initially housed in Knowles-Volpe Hall, now known as the Asa S. Knowles Center, with 11 faculty members and 239 first-year students. Graduate degree programs were added in 1984. A year later, the college moved into the former Botolph Building, one of the oldest structures on campus, which reopened as the David and Margaret Fitzgerald Cullinane Hall. At the end of 1987, the CCS proposed the Law of Demeter, which was widely used in software development area. In 2004, the college moved into the newly constructed West Village H building, which consists of a six-story building and a 16-story tower containing the Khoury College of Computer Science and on-campus housing for 485 students.\n\nNaming donation\n\nOn December 16, 2018, Northeastern University announced a $50 million gift from alumnus and board trustee, Amin Khoury, in order to "support all aspects of the college\'s future focus." In return, the College of Computer and Information Science was renamed the Khoury College of Computer Sciences.\n\nNortheastern Deans of Computer Science\n\n Paul Kalaghan, 1982-1988\n Alan Selman (acting), 1988-1990\n Cynthia Brown, 1990-1994\n Larry Finkelstein, 1994-2014\n Carla Brodley, 2014-2021\n Alan Mislove (interim), 2021-2022\n Elizabeth Mynatt, 2022 - present\n\nAcademic programs\nIn addition to a traditional computer science curriculum, Khoury College offers numerous other information science programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.\n\nComputer science\n\nThe computer science program at Khoury College focuses on the fundamentals of computer program design, software design, computer networking, computation theory, and other technical computer-related subjects.\n\nUndergraduate degrees\n\nThe CS program offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees. While both require a core curriculum of computer science, mathematics, science, and humanities coursework, the B.A. candidates are required to take more humanities coursework than B.S. candidates. The B.S. is thus the more technical of the two degrees, with the B.A. aimed at giving students a social science context with which to frame their understanding of computer science. Khoury College offers the following degrees:\n\nB.S. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Cybersecurity\nB.A. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Information Science\nB.S. in Data Science\n\nCombined majors\n\nKhoury College offers multiple combined major degree options within its own programs:\n\n B.S. in Computer Science and Information Science\n B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science\n\nThe combined B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science substitutes four master-level courses for their undergraduate equivalents. Students then have only to take four master-level electives to complete the program. This allows a student to graduate with both degrees on either a five-year track, or a six-year track with an additional co-op experience.\n\nIn addition, the College partners with other colleges at Northeastern to offer several joint degrees, such as combining Computer Science with Journalism, Game Design or Interactive Media.\n\nInformation science\n\nInformation science—the interdisciplinary study of how humans use information technology—combines a technical understanding of computer science and system design with the behavior context of the social sciences. Coursework covers the fields of information architecture, information system design and development, programming design, database design, and social informatics, among others. A two-semester senior capstone project, designed to integrate the many skill sets developed in the program, is required. Currently, only the B.S. of Information Science is offered, though it may be offered in conjunction with another degree.\n\nGraduate degrees\n\nKhoury College offers both Master of Science and doctoral degrees. In 2018, Khoury College\'s graduate program in computer science was ranked 49th in the list of the "Best Computer Science Graduate Schools." The publication also ranked the graduate program 12th on its list of "Best Programming Language Programs."\n\nMaster\'s degrees\n\nKhoury College offers the following master\'s degrees:\n\n MS in Computer Science \n Align MS in Computer Science (for people who did not study computer science as undergrads)\n MS in Cybersecurity\n MS in Data Science\n MS in Artificial Intelligence\n MS in Robotics\n MS in Health Informatics\n MS in Health Data Analytics\n MS in Game Science and Design\n\nCandidates for the MS in Computer Science can choose from the following concentrations:\n\nArtificial intelligence\nHuman–computer interaction\nDatabase management\nGraphics\nInformation security\nNetworks\nProgramming languages\nSoftware engineering\nSystems\nTheory\n\nKhoury College began offering the M.S. in Information Assurance (now the MS in Cybersecurity) in 2006, for which it has gained recognition by the National Security Agency as both a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education and Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Research. Masters candidates take coursework addressing the various technical, policy, and criminal justice-related issues involved in information assurance, preparing them for careers as corporate and government information executives. Full-time candidates for the M.S. in Cybersecurity typically finish the program in two years, with 32 semester hours required to earn the degree.\n\nPhD program\n\nThe PhD program prepares students for research careers in government, industry, or academia. Candidates are required to take coursework in computer systems, principles of programming languages, advanced algorithms, and computation theory. Electives in these and other subjects are also available. Candidates are given a maximum of five years to complete this coursework and their doctoral thesis. Khoury College offers four PhD programs:\n\n PhD in Computer Science\n PhD in Network Science\n PhD in Information Assurance\n PhD in Personal Health Informatics\n\nIn the 2011–2012 school year, the information assurance program began offering the Ph.D in Information Assurance, designed to be an interdisciplinary program with a focus on information assurance policy and research. Candidates for this doctoral degree take a core curriculum of computer networking, network security, hardware and software security, information security risk management, and information assurance policy. Elective coursework is then taken in one of three areas of concentration (or "tracks"), namely:\n\n Network/Communication Security\n System Security\n Policy/Society\n\nCandidates for the PhD in Information Assurance have a maximum of five years to complete their required coursework and doctoral thesis.\n\nThe PhD in Personal Health Informatics is an interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in Personal Health Informatics prepares researchers to design and evaluate technologies that improve health and wellness with the potential to transform healthcare. The joint degree program combines a strong curriculum in human-computer interface technology and experimental design in health sciences.\n\nStudent groups\nThe following student groups and organizations are part of the Khoury College community:\n\nAssociation for Computing Machinery (ACM)\nComputer Science Mentoring Organization (CoSMO)\nUndergraduate Experimental Systems Group (Crew), a volunteer student group supporting the Khoury IT systems staff\nUpsilon Pi Epsilon Honor Society (UPE)\nNortheastern University Women in Technology (NUWiT)\nNortheastern Game Development Club \nInformation Systems Security Association\nOut in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (oSTEM)\nNortheastern University DATA Club\n\nStudents of the college also participate in a variety of information security competitions, most notably the National Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition. The College\'s team won its regional qualifier, the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition ("NECCDC"), in 2009, and took first place at the national competition in 2010. Khoury College was host to the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition in 2011.\n\nCooperative education within Khoury College\nStudents at Khoury College have the option of participating in Northeastern\'s Cooperative Education Program ("co-op program"). The co-op program allows students to take semester-long internships with public and private-sector organizations, exposing them to the real world application of the skills and knowledge taught in their academic major. Nearly two-thirds of Khoury College\'s graduating students are offered full-time positions by the companies for at which they worked a co-op.\n\nCompanies that participate in this program range from small startups to large enterprises including Google, Microsoft, John Hancock, and Amazon.com. The college has been able to achieve 100% placement in the past 7 years for all students who choose to go on 5-year co-op program.\n\nKey people\n Carla Brodley, Professor, Dean of Inclusive Computing, Northeastern University \nMatthias Felleisen, Trustee Professor \nWilliam Clinger , Associate Professor Emeritus \n David Lazer, Distinguished Professor \n Albert-László Barabási, Distinguished Professor \n Alessandro Vespignani, Distinguished Professor \n Renée Miller, Distinguished Professor \n Gene Cooperman, Professor, parallel computing and combination puzzle analysis\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences website\n Northeastern University website\n\nNortheastern University\nEducational institutions established in 1982\nUniversity subdivisions in Massachusetts\n1982 establishments in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '18879',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts%20Institute%20of%20Technology',
  'title': 'Massachusetts Institute of Technology',
  'text': 'The Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) is a private land-grant research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Established in 1861, MIT has since played a key role in the development of modern technology and science, ranking it among the top academic institutions in the world. \n\nFounded in response to the increasing industrialization of the United States, MIT adopted a European polytechnic university model and stressed laboratory instruction in applied science and engineering. The institute has an urban campus that extends more than a mile (1.6 km) alongside the Charles River, and encompasses a number of major off-campus facilities such as the MIT Lincoln Laboratory, the Bates Center, and the Haystack Observatory, as well as affiliated laboratories such as the Broad and Whitehead Institutes. \n\n, 98 Nobel laureates, 26 Turing Award winners, and 8 Fields Medalists have been affiliated with MIT as alumni, faculty members, or researchers. In addition, 58 National Medal of Science recipients, 29 National Medals of Technology and Innovation recipients, 50 MacArthur Fellows, 80 Marshall Scholars, 41 astronauts, 16 Chief Scientists of the U.S. Air Force, and numerous heads of states have been affiliated with MIT. The institute also has a strong entrepreneurial culture and MIT alumni have founded or co-founded many notable companies. MIT is a member of the Association of American Universities (AAU) and has received more Sloan Research Fellowships than any other university in North America.\n\nHistory\n\nFoundation and vision \n\nIn 1859, a proposal was submitted to the Massachusetts General Court to use newly filled lands in Back Bay, Boston for a "Conservatory of Art and Science", but the proposal failed. A charter for the incorporation of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, proposed by William Barton Rogers, was signed by John Albion Andrew, the governor of Massachusetts, on April 10, 1861.\n\nRogers, a graduate of  William and Mary and professor at UVA, wanted to establish an institution to address rapid scientific and technological advances. He did not wish to found a professional school, but a combination with elements of both professional and liberal education, proposing that:\n\nThe true and only practicable object of a polytechnic school is, as I conceive, the teaching, not of the minute details and manipulations of the arts, which can be done only in the workshop, but the inculcation of those scientific principles which form the basis and explanation of them, and along with this, a full and methodical review of all their leading processes and operations in connection with physical laws.\n\nThe Rogers Plan reflected the German research university model, emphasizing an independent faculty engaged in research, as well as instruction oriented around seminars and laboratories.\n\nEarly developments \n\nTwo days after MIT was chartered, the first battle of the Civil War broke out. After a long delay through the war years, MIT\'s first classes were held in the Mercantile Building in Boston in 1865. The new institute was founded as part of the Morrill Land-Grant Colleges Act to fund institutions "to promote the liberal and practical education of the industrial classes" and was a land-grant school. In 1863 under the same act, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts founded the Massachusetts Agricultural College, which developed as the University of Massachusetts Amherst. In 1866, the proceeds from land sales went toward new buildings in the Back Bay.\n\nMIT was informally called "Boston Tech". The institute adopted the European polytechnic university model and emphasized laboratory instruction from an early date. Despite chronic financial problems, the institute saw growth in the last two decades of the 19th century under President Francis Amasa Walker. Programs in electrical, chemical, marine, and sanitary engineering were introduced, new buildings were built, and the size of the student body increased to more than one thousand.\n\nThe curriculum drifted to a vocational emphasis, with less focus on theoretical science. The fledgling school still suffered from chronic financial shortages which diverted the attention of the MIT leadership. During these "Boston Tech" years, MIT faculty and alumni rebuffed Harvard University president (and former MIT faculty) Charles W. Eliot\'s repeated attempts to merge MIT with Harvard College\'s Lawrence Scientific School. There would be at least six attempts to absorb MIT into Harvard. In its cramped Back Bay location, MIT could not afford to expand its overcrowded facilities, driving a desperate search for a new campus and funding. Eventually, the MIT Corporation approved a formal agreement to merge with Harvard, over the vehement objections of MIT faculty, students, and alumni. However, a 1917 decision by the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court effectively put an end to the merger scheme.\n\nIn 1916, the MIT administration and the MIT charter crossed the Charles River on the ceremonial barge Bucentaur built for the occasion, to signify MIT\'s move to a spacious new campus largely consisting of filled land on a  tract along the Cambridge side of the Charles River. The neoclassical "New Technology" campus was designed by William W. Bosworth and had been funded largely by anonymous donations from a mysterious "Mr. Smith", starting in 1912. In January 1920, the donor was revealed to be the industrialist George Eastman of Rochester, New York, who had invented methods of film production and processing, and founded Eastman Kodak. Between 1912 and 1920, Eastman donated $20 million ($ million in 2015 dollars) in cash and Kodak stock to MIT.\n\nCurricular reforms \nIn the 1930s, President Karl Taylor Compton and Vice-President (effectively Provost) Vannevar Bush emphasized the importance of pure sciences like physics and chemistry and reduced the vocational practice required in shops and drafting studios. The Compton reforms "renewed confidence in the ability of the Institute to develop leadership in science as well as in engineering". Unlike Ivy League schools, MIT catered more to middle-class families, and depended more on tuition than on endowments or grants for its funding. The school was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934.\n\nStill, as late as 1949, the Lewis Committee lamented in its report on the state of education at MIT that "the Institute is widely conceived as basically a vocational school", a "partly unjustified" perception the committee sought to change. The report comprehensively reviewed the undergraduate curriculum, recommended offering a broader education, and warned against letting engineering and government-sponsored research detract from the sciences and humanities. The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences and the MIT Sloan School of Management were formed in 1950 to compete with the powerful Schools of Science and Engineering. Previously marginalized faculties in the areas of economics, management, political science, and linguistics emerged into cohesive and assertive departments by attracting respected professors and launching competitive graduate programs. The School of Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences continued to develop under the successive terms of the more humanistically oriented presidents Howard W. Johnson and Jerome Wiesner between 1966 and 1980.\n\nDefense research \n\nMIT\'s involvement in military science surged during World War II. In 1941, Vannevar Bush was appointed head of the federal Office of Scientific Research and Development and directed funding to only a select group of universities, including MIT. Engineers and scientists from across the country gathered at MIT\'s Radiation Laboratory, established in 1940 to assist the British military in developing microwave radar. The work done there significantly affected both the war and subsequent research in the area. Other defense projects included gyroscope-based and other complex control systems for gunsight, bombsight, and inertial navigation under Charles Stark Draper\'s Instrumentation Laboratory; the development of a digital computer for flight simulations under Project Whirlwind; and high-speed and high-altitude photography under Harold Edgerton. By the end of the war, MIT became the nation\'s largest wartime R&D contractor (attracting some criticism of Bush), employing nearly 4000 in the Radiation Laboratory alone and receiving in excess of $100 million ($ billion in 2015 dollars) before 1946. Work on defense projects continued even after then. Post-war government-sponsored research at MIT included SAGE and guidance systems for ballistic missiles and Project Apollo.\n\nThese activities affected MIT profoundly. A 1949 report noted the lack of "any great slackening in the pace of life at the Institute" to match the return to peacetime, remembering the "academic tranquility of the prewar years", though acknowledging the significant contributions of military research to the increased emphasis on graduate education and rapid growth of personnel and facilities. The faculty doubled and the graduate student body quintupled during the terms of Karl Taylor Compton, president of MIT between 1930 and 1948; James Rhyne Killian, president from 1948 to 1957; and Julius Adams Stratton, chancellor from 1952 to 1957, whose institution-building strategies shaped the expanding university. By the 1950s, MIT no longer simply benefited the industries with which it had worked for three decades, and it had developed closer working relationships with new patrons, philanthropic foundations and the federal government.\n\nIn late 1960s and early 1970s, student and faculty activists protested against the Vietnam War and MIT\'s defense research. In this period MIT\'s various departments were researching helicopters, smart bombs and counterinsurgency techniques for the war in Vietnam as well as guidance systems for nuclear missiles. The Union of Concerned Scientists was founded on March 4, 1969 during a meeting of faculty members and students seeking to shift the emphasis on military research toward environmental and social problems. MIT ultimately divested itself from the Instrumentation Laboratory and moved all classified research off-campus to the MIT Lincoln Laboratory facility in 1973 in response to the protests. The student body, faculty, and administration remained comparatively unpolarized during what was a tumultuous time for many other universities. Johnson was seen to be highly successful in leading his institution to "greater strength and unity" after these times of turmoil. However six MIT students were sentenced to prison terms at this time and some former student leaders, such as Michael Albert and George Katsiaficas, are still indignant about MIT\'s role in military research and its suppression of these protests. (Richard Leacock\'s film, November Actions, records some of these tumultuous events.)\n\nIn the 1980s, there was more controversy at MIT over its involvement in SDI (space weaponry) and CBW (chemical and biological warfare) research. More recently, MIT\'s research for the military has included work on robots, drones and \'battle suits\'.\n\nRecent history \n\nMIT has kept pace with and helped to advance the digital age. In addition to developing the predecessors to modern computing and networking technologies, students, staff, and faculty members at Project MAC, the Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, and the Tech Model Railroad Club wrote some of the earliest interactive computer video games like Spacewar! and created much of modern hacker slang and culture. Several major computer-related organizations have originated at MIT since the 1980s: Richard Stallman\'s GNU Project and the subsequent Free Software Foundation were founded in the mid-1980s at the AI Lab; the MIT Media Lab was founded in 1985 by Nicholas Negroponte and Jerome Wiesner to promote research into novel uses of computer technology; the World Wide Web Consortium standards organization was founded at the Laboratory for Computer Science in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee; the OpenCourseWare project has made course materials for over 2,000 MIT classes available online free of charge since 2002; and the One Laptop per Child initiative to expand computer education and connectivity to children worldwide was launched in 2005.\n\nMIT was named a sea-grant college in 1976 to support its programs in oceanography and marine sciences and was named a space-grant college in 1989 to support its aeronautics and astronautics programs. Despite diminishing government financial support over the past quarter century, MIT launched several successful development campaigns to significantly expand the campus: new dormitories and athletics buildings on west campus; the Tang Center for Management Education; several buildings in the northeast corner of campus supporting research into biology, brain and cognitive sciences, genomics, biotechnology, and cancer research; and a number of new "backlot" buildings on Vassar Street including the Stata Center. Construction on campus in the 2000s included expansions of the Media Lab, the Sloan School\'s eastern campus, and graduate residences in the northwest. In 2006, President Hockfield launched the MIT Energy Research Council to investigate the interdisciplinary challenges posed by increasing global energy consumption.\n\nIn 2001, inspired by the open source and open access movements, MIT launched OpenCourseWare to make the lecture notes, problem sets, syllabi, exams, and lectures from the great majority of its courses available online for no charge, though without any formal accreditation for coursework completed. While the cost of supporting and hosting the project is high, OCW expanded in 2005 to include other universities as a part of the OpenCourseWare Consortium, which currently includes more than 250 academic institutions with content available in at least six languages. In 2011, MIT announced it would offer formal certification (but not credits or degrees) to online participants completing coursework in its "MITx" program, for a modest fee. The "edX" online platform supporting MITx was initially developed in partnership with Harvard and its analogous "Harvardx" initiative. The courseware platform is open source, and other universities have already joined and added their own course content. In March 2009 the MIT faculty adopted an open-access policy to make its scholarship publicly accessible online.\n\nMIT has its own police force. Three days after the Boston Marathon bombing of April 2013, MIT Police patrol officer Sean Collier was fatally shot by the suspects Dzhokhar and Tamerlan Tsarnaev, setting off a violent manhunt that shut down the campus and much of the Boston metropolitan area for a day. One week later, Collier\'s memorial service was attended by more than 10,000 people, in a ceremony hosted by the MIT community with thousands of police officers from the New England region and Canada. On November 25, 2013, MIT announced the creation of the Collier Medal, to be awarded annually to "an individual or group that embodies the character and qualities that Officer Collier exhibited as a member of the MIT community and in all aspects of his life". The announcement further stated that "Future recipients of the award will include those whose contributions exceed the boundaries of their profession, those who have contributed to building bridges across the community, and those who consistently and selflessly perform acts of kindness".\n\nIn September 2017, the school announced the creation of an artificial intelligence research lab called the MIT-IBM Watson AI Lab. IBM will spend $240 million over the next decade, and the lab will be staffed by MIT and IBM scientists. In October 2018 MIT announced that it would open a new Schwarzman College of Computing dedicated to the study of artificial intelligence, named after lead donor and The Blackstone Group CEO Stephen Schwarzman. The focus of the new college is to study not just AI, but interdisciplinary AI education, and how AI can be used in fields as diverse as history and biology. The cost of buildings and new faculty for the new college is expected to be $1 billion upon completion.\n\nThe Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory (LIGO) was designed and constructed by a team of scientists from California Institute of Technology, MIT, and industrial contractors, and funded by the National Science Foundation. It was designed to open the field of gravitational-wave astronomy through the detection of gravitational waves predicted by general relativity. Gravitational waves were detected for the first time by the LIGO detector in 2015. For contributions to the LIGO detector and the observation of gravitational waves, two Caltech physicists, Kip Thorne and Barry Barish, and MIT physicist Rainer Weiss won the Nobel Prize in physics in 2017. Weiss, who is also an MIT graduate, designed the laser interferometric technique, which served as the essential blueprint for the LIGO.\n\nIn 2021, MIT researchers in the field of Computer Science and Artificial Intelligence developed an AI system that makes robots better at handling objects. The simulated, anthropomorphic hand created could manipulate more than 2,000 objects. And the system didn’t need to know what it was about to pick up to find a way to move it around in its hand.\n\nCampus \n\nMIT\'s  campus in the city of Cambridge spans approximately a mile along the north side of the Charles River basin. The campus is divided roughly in half by Massachusetts Avenue, with most dormitories and student life facilities to the west and most academic buildings to the east. The bridge closest to MIT is the Harvard Bridge, which is known for being marked off in a non-standard unit of length – the smoot.\n\nThe Kendall/MIT MBTA Red Line station is located on the northeastern edge of the campus, in Kendall Square. The Cambridge neighborhoods surrounding MIT are a mixture of high tech companies occupying both modern office and rehabilitated industrial buildings, as well as socio-economically diverse residential neighborhoods. In early 2016, MIT presented its updated Kendall Square Initiative to the City of Cambridge, with plans for mixed-use educational, retail, residential, startup incubator, and office space in a dense high-rise transit-oriented development plan. The MIT Museum will eventually be moved immediately adjacent to a Kendall Square subway entrance, joining the List Visual Arts Center on the eastern end of the campus.\n\nEach building at MIT has a number (possibly preceded by a W, N, E, or NW) designation, and most have a name as well. Typically, academic and office buildings are referred to primarily by number while residence halls are referred to by name. The organization of building numbers roughly corresponds to the order in which the buildings were built and their location relative (north, west, and east) to the original center cluster of Maclaurin buildings. Many of the buildings are connected above ground as well as through an extensive network of tunnels, providing protection from the Cambridge weather as well as a venue for roof and tunnel hacking.\n\nMIT\'s on-campus nuclear reactor is one of the most powerful university-based nuclear reactors in the United States. The prominence of the reactor\'s containment building in a densely populated area has been controversial, but MIT maintains that it is well-secured. In 1999 Bill Gates donated US$20 million to MIT for the construction of a computer laboratory named the "William H. Gates Building", and designed by architect Frank Gehry. While Microsoft had previously given financial support to the institution, this was the first personal donation received from Gates.\n\nMIT Nano, also known as Building 12, is an interdisciplinary facility for nanoscale research. Its  cleanroom and research space, visible through expansive glass facades, is the largest research facility of its kind in the nation. With a cost of US$400 million, it is also one of the costliest buildings on campus. The facility also provides state-of-the-art nanoimaging capabilities with vibration damped imaging and metrology suites sitting atop a  slab of concrete underground.\n\nOther notable campus facilities include a pressurized wind tunnel for testing aerodynamic research, a towing tank for testing ship and ocean structure designs, and previously Alcator C-Mod, which was the largest fusion device operated by any university. MIT\'s campus-wide wireless network was completed in the fall of 2005 and consists of nearly 3,000 access points covering  of campus.\n\nIn 2001, the Environmental Protection Agency sued MIT for violating the Clean Water Act and the Clean Air Act with regard to its hazardous waste storage and disposal procedures. MIT settled the suit by paying a $155,000 fine and launching three environmental projects. In connection with capital campaigns to expand the campus, the Institute has also extensively renovated existing buildings to improve their energy efficiency. MIT has also taken steps to reduce its environmental impact by running alternative fuel campus shuttles, subsidizing public transportation passes, and building a low-emission cogeneration plant that serves most of the campus electricity, heating, and cooling requirements.\n\nMIT has substantial commercial real estate holdings in Cambridge on which it pays property taxes, plus an additional voluntary payment in lieu of taxes (PILOT) on academic buildings which are legally tax-exempt. , it is the largest taxpayer in the city, contributing approximately 14% of the city\'s annual revenues. Holdings include Technology Square, parts of Kendall Square, and many properties in Cambridgeport and Area 4 neighboring the educational buildings. The land is held for investment purposes and potential long-term expansion.\n\nArchitecture \n\nMIT\'s School of Architecture, now the School of Architecture and Planning, was the first formal architecture program in the United States, and it has a history of commissioning progressive buildings. The first buildings constructed on the Cambridge campus, completed in 1916, are sometimes called the "Maclaurin buildings" after Institute president Richard Maclaurin who oversaw their construction. Designed by William Welles Bosworth, these imposing buildings were built of reinforced concrete, a first for a non-industrial – much less university – building in the US. Bosworth\'s design was influenced by the City Beautiful Movement of the early 1900s and features the Pantheon-esque Great Dome housing the Barker Engineering Library. The Great Dome overlooks Killian Court, where graduation ceremonies are held each year. The friezes of the limestone-clad buildings around Killian Court are engraved with the names of important scientists and philosophers. The spacious Building 7 atrium at 77 Massachusetts Avenue is regarded as the entrance to the Infinite Corridor and the rest of the campus.\n\nAlvar Aalto\'s Baker House (1947), Eero Saarinen\'s MIT Chapel and Kresge Auditorium (1955), and I.M. Pei\'s Green, Dreyfus, Landau, and Wiesner buildings represent high forms of post-war modernist architecture. More recent buildings like Frank Gehry\'s Stata Center (2004), Steven Holl\'s Simmons Hall (2002), Charles Correa\'s Building 46 (2005), and Fumihiko Maki\'s Media Lab Extension (2009) stand out among the Boston area\'s classical architecture and serve as examples of contemporary campus "starchitecture". These buildings have not always been well received; in 2010, The Princeton Review included MIT in a list of twenty schools whose campuses are "tiny, unsightly, or both".\n\nHousing \n\nUndergraduates are guaranteed four-year housing in one of MIT\'s 11 undergraduate dormitories. Out of the 11 dormitories, 10 are currently active due to one of the residential halls, Burton Conner, undergoing renovation from 2020 to 2022. Those living on campus can receive support and mentoring from live-in graduate student tutors, resident advisors, and faculty housemasters. Because housing assignments are made based on the preferences of the students themselves, diverse social atmospheres can be sustained in different living groups; for example, according to the Yale Daily News staff\'s The Insider\'s Guide to the Colleges, 2010, "The split between East Campus and West Campus is a significant characteristic of MIT. East Campus has gained a reputation as a thriving counterculture." MIT also has 5 dormitories for single graduate students and 2 apartment buildings on campus for married student families.\n\nMIT has an active Greek and co-op housing system, including thirty-six fraternities, sororities, and independent living groups (FSILGs). , 98% of all undergraduates lived in MIT-affiliated housing; 54% of the men participated in fraternities and 20% of the women were involved in sororities. Most FSILGs are located across the river in Back Bay near where MIT was founded, and there is also a cluster of fraternities on MIT\'s West Campus that face the Charles River Basin. After the 1997 alcohol-related death of Scott Krueger, a new pledge at the Phi Gamma Delta fraternity, MIT required all freshmen to live in the dormitory system starting in 2002. Because FSILGs had previously housed as many as 300 freshmen off-campus, the new policy could not be implemented until Simmons Hall opened in that year.\n\nIn 2013–2014, MIT abruptly closed and then demolished undergrad dorm Bexley Hall, citing extensive water damage that made repairs infeasible. In 2017, MIT shut down Senior House after a century of service as an undergrad dorm. That year, MIT administrators released data showing just 60% of Senior House residents had graduated in four years. Campus-wide, the four-year graduation rate is 84% (the cumulative graduation rate is significantly higher).\n\nOrganization and administration \n\nMIT is chartered as a non-profit organization and is owned and governed by a privately appointed board of trustees known as the MIT Corporation. The current board consists of 43 members elected to five-year terms, 25 life members who vote until their 75th birthday, 3 elected officers (President, Treasurer, and Secretary), and 4 ex officio members (the president of the alumni association, the Governor of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Secretary of Education, and the Chief Justice of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court). The board is chaired by Diane Greene SM ’78, co-founder and former CEO of VMware and former CEO of  Google Cloud. The Corporation approves the budget, new programs, degrees and faculty appointments, and elects the President to serve as the chief executive officer of the university and preside over the Institute\'s faculty. MIT\'s endowment and other financial assets are managed through a subsidiary called MIT Investment Management Company (MITIMCo). Valued at $16.4 billion in 2018, MIT\'s endowment was then the sixth-largest among American colleges and universities.\n\nMIT has five schools (Science, Engineering, Architecture and Planning, Management, and Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences) and one college (Schwarzman College of Computing), but no schools of law or medicine. While faculty committees assert substantial control over many areas of MIT\'s curriculum, research, student life, and administrative affairs, the chair of each of MIT\'s 32 academic departments reports to the dean of that department\'s school, who in turn reports to the Provost under the President. The current president is L. Rafael Reif, who formerly served as provost under President Susan Hockfield, the first woman to hold the post.\n\nAcademics \nMIT is a large, highly residential, research university with a majority of enrollments in graduate and professional programs. The university has been accredited by the New England Association of Schools and Colleges since 1929. MIT operates on a 4–1–4 academic calendar with the fall semester beginning after Labor Day and ending in mid-December, a 4-week "Independent Activities Period" in the month of January, and the spring semester commencing in early February and ceasing in late May.\n\nMIT students refer to both their majors and classes using numbers or acronyms alone. Departments and their corresponding majors are numbered in the approximate order of their foundation; for example, Civil and Environmental Engineering is , while Linguistics and Philosophy is . Students majoring in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (EECS), the most popular department, collectively identify themselves as "Course 6". MIT students use a combination of the department\'s course number and the number assigned to the class to identify their subjects; for instance, the introductory calculus-based classical mechanics course is simply "8.01" at MIT.\n\nUndergraduate program \nThe four-year, full-time undergraduate program maintains a balance between professional majors and those in the arts and sciences, and has been dubbed "most selective" by U.S. News, admitting few transfer students and 4.1% of its applicants in the 2020–2021 admissions cycle. MIT offers 44 undergraduate degrees across its five schools. In the 2017–2018 academic year, 1,045 bachelor of science degrees (abbreviated "SB") were granted, the only type of undergraduate degree MIT now awards. In the 2011 fall term, among students who had designated a major, the School of Engineering was the most popular division, enrolling 63% of students in its 19 degree programs, followed by the School of Science (29%), School of Humanities, Arts, & Social Sciences (3.7%), Sloan School of Management (3.3%), and School of Architecture and Planning (2%). The largest undergraduate degree programs were in Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (), Computer Science and Engineering (), Mechanical Engineering (), Physics (), and Mathematics ().\n\nAll undergraduates are required to complete a core curriculum called the General Institute Requirements (GIRs). The Science Requirement, generally completed during freshman year as prerequisites for classes in science and engineering majors, comprises two semesters of physics, two semesters of calculus, one semester of chemistry, and one semester of biology. There is a Laboratory Requirement, usually satisfied by an appropriate class in a course major. The Humanities, Arts, and Social Sciences (HASS) Requirement consists of eight semesters of classes in the humanities, arts, and social sciences, including at least one semester from each division as well as the courses required for a designated concentration in a HASS division. Under the Communication Requirement, two of the HASS classes, plus two of the classes taken in the designated major must be "communication-intensive", including "substantial instruction and practice in oral presentation". Finally, all students are required to complete a swimming test; non-varsity athletes must also take four quarters of physical education classes.\n\nMost classes rely on a combination of lectures, recitations led by associate professors or graduate students, weekly problem sets ("p-sets"), and periodic quizzes or tests. While the pace and difficulty of MIT coursework has been compared to "drinking from a fire hose", the freshmen retention rate at MIT is similar to other research universities. The "pass/no-record" grading system relieves some pressure for first-year undergraduates. For each class taken in the fall term, freshmen transcripts will either report only that the class was passed, or otherwise not have any record of it. In the spring term, passing grades (A, B, C) appear on the transcript while non-passing grades are again not recorded. (Grading had previously been "pass/no record" all freshman year, but was amended for the Class of 2006 to prevent students from gaming the system by completing required major classes in their freshman year.) Also, freshmen may choose to join alternative learning communities, such as Experimental Study Group, Concourse, or Terrascope.\n\nIn 1969, Margaret MacVicar founded the Undergraduate Research Opportunities Program (UROP) to enable undergraduates to collaborate directly with faculty members and researchers. Students join or initiate research projects ("UROPs") for academic credit, pay, or on a volunteer basis through postings on the UROP website or by contacting faculty members directly. A substantial majority of undergraduates participate. Students often become published, file patent applications, and/or launch start-up companies based upon their experience in UROPs.\n\nIn 1970, the then-Dean of Institute Relations, Benson R. Snyder, published The Hidden Curriculum, arguing that education at MIT was often slighted in favor of following a set of unwritten expectations and that graduating with good grades was more often the product of figuring out the system rather than a solid education. The successful student, according to Snyder, was the one who was able to discern which of the formal requirements were to be ignored in favor of which unstated norms. For example, organized student groups had compiled "course bibles"—collections of problem-set and examination questions and answers for later students to use as references. This sort of gamesmanship, Snyder argued, hindered development of a creative intellect and contributed to student discontent and unrest.\n\nGraduate program \nMIT\'s graduate program has high coexistence with the undergraduate program, and many courses are taken by qualified students at both levels. MIT offers a comprehensive doctoral program with degrees in the humanities, social sciences, and STEM fields as well as professional degrees. The Institute offers graduate programs leading to academic degrees such as the Master of Science (which is abbreviated as SM at MIT), various Engineer\'s Degrees, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), and Doctor of Science (ScD) and interdisciplinary graduate programs such as the MD-PhD (with Harvard Medical School) and a joint program in oceanography with Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution.\n\nAdmission to graduate programs is decentralized; applicants apply directly to the department or degree program. More than 90% of doctoral students are supported by fellowships, research assistantships (RAs), or teaching assistantships (TAs).\n\nMIT Bootcamps \nMIT Bootcamps are intense week-long innovation and leadership programs that challenge participants to develop a venture in a week. Each Bootcamp centers around a particular topic, specific to an industry, leadership skill set, or emerging technology. Cohorts are organized into small teams who work on an entrepreneurial project together, in addition to individual learning and team coaching. The program includes a series of online seminars with MIT faculty, practitioners, and industry experts, innovation workshops with bootcamp instructors focused on putting the theory participants have learned into practice, coaching sessions, and informal office hours for learners to exchange ideas freely. Bootcampers are tasked with weekly "deliverables," which are key elements of a business plan, to help guide the group through the decision-making process involved in building an enterprise. The experience culminates in a final pitch session, judged by a panel of experts.\n\nMIT Bootcamp instructors include Eric von Hippel, Sanjay Sarma, Erdin Beshimov, and Bill Aulet. MIT Bootcamps were founded by Erdin Beshimov.\n\nRankings   \n\nMIT also places among the top five in many overall rankings of universities (see right) and rankings based on students\' revealed preferences. For several years, U.S. News & World Report, the QS World University Rankings, and the Academic Ranking of World Universities have ranked MIT\'s School of Engineering first, as did the 1995 National Research Council report. In the same lists, MIT\'s strongest showings apart from in engineering are in computer science, the natural sciences, business, architecture, economics, linguistics, mathematics, and, to a lesser extent, political science and philosophy.\n\nTimes Higher Education has recognized MIT as one of the world\'s "six super brands" on its World Reputation Rankings, along with Berkeley, Cambridge, Harvard, Oxford and Stanford. In 2019, it ranked 3rd among the universities around the world by SCImago Institutions Rankings. In 2017, the Times Higher Education World University Rankings rated MIT the #2 university for arts and humanities. MIT was ranked #7 in 2015 and #6 in 2017 of the Nature Index Annual Tables, which measure the largest contributors to papers published in 82 leading journals.\nGeorgetown University researchers ranked it #3 in the U.S. for 20-year return on investment.\n\nCollaborations \n\nThe university historically pioneered research and training collaborations between academia, industry and government. \xa0In 1946, President Compton, Harvard Business School professor Georges Doriot, and Massachusetts Investor Trust chairman Merrill Grisswold founded American Research and Development Corporation, the first American venture-capital firm. \xa0In 1948, Compton established the MIT Industrial Liaison Program. Throughout the late 1980s and early 1990s, American politicians and business leaders accused MIT and other universities of contributing to a declining economy by transferring taxpayer-funded research and technology to international – especially Japanese – firms that were competing with struggling American businesses. On the other hand, MIT\'s extensive collaboration with the federal government on research projects has led to several MIT leaders serving as presidential scientific advisers since 1940. MIT established a Washington Office in 1991 to continue effective lobbying for research funding and national science policy.\n\nThe US Justice Department began an investigation in 1989, and in 1991 filed an antitrust suit against MIT, the eight Ivy League colleges, and eleven other institutions for allegedly engaging in price-fixing during their annual "Overlap Meetings", which were held to prevent bidding wars over promising prospective students from consuming funds for need-based scholarships. While the Ivy League institutions settled, MIT contested the charges, arguing that the practice was not anti-competitive because it ensured the availability of aid for the greatest number of students. MIT ultimately prevailed when the Justice Department dropped the case in 1994.\n\nMIT\'s proximity to Harvard University ("the other school up the river") has led to a substantial number of research collaborations such as the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology and the Broad Institute. In addition, students at the two schools can cross-register for credits toward their own school\'s degrees without any additional fees. A cross-registration program between MIT and Wellesley College has also existed since 1969, and in 2002 the Cambridge–MIT Institute launched an undergraduate exchange program between MIT and the University of Cambridge. MIT also has a long term partnership with Imperial College London, for both student exchanges and research collaboration. More modest cross-registration programs have been established with Boston University, Brandeis University, Tufts University, Massachusetts College of Art and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston.\n\nMIT maintains substantial research and faculty ties with independent research organizations in the Boston area, such as the Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. Ongoing international research and educational collaborations include the Amsterdam Institute for Advanced Metropolitan Solutions (AMS Institute), Singapore-MIT Alliance, MIT-Politecnico di Milano, MIT-Zaragoza International Logistics Program, and projects in other countries through the MIT International Science and Technology Initiatives (MISTI) program.\n\nThe mass-market magazine Technology Review is published by MIT through a subsidiary company, as is a special edition that also serves as an alumni magazine. The MIT Press is a major university press, publishing over 200 books and 30 journals annually, emphasizing science and technology as well as arts, architecture, new media, current events, and social issues.\n\nLibraries, collections and museums \n\nThe MIT library system consists of five subject libraries: Barker (Engineering), Dewey (Economics), Hayden (Humanities and Science), Lewis (Music), and Rotch (Arts and Architecture). There are also various specialized libraries and archives. The libraries contain more than 2.9 million printed volumes, 2.4 million microforms, 49,000 print or electronic journal subscriptions, and 670 reference databases. The past decade has seen a trend of increased focus on digital over print resources in the libraries. Notable collections include the Lewis Music Library with an emphasis on 20th and 21st-century music and electronic music, the List Visual Arts Center\'s rotating exhibitions of contemporary art, and the Compton Gallery\'s cross-disciplinary exhibitions. MIT allocates a percentage of the budget for all new construction and renovation to commission and support its extensive public art and outdoor sculpture collection.\n\nThe MIT Museum was founded in 1971 and collects, preserves, and exhibits artifacts significant to the culture and history of MIT. The museum now engages in significant educational outreach programs for the general public, including the annual Cambridge Science Festival, the first celebration of this kind in the United States. Since 2005, its official mission has been, "to engage the wider community with MIT\'s science, technology and other areas of scholarship in ways that will best serve the nation and the world in the 21st century".\n\nResearch \nMIT was elected to the Association of American Universities in 1934 and is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity"; research expenditures totaled $952 million in 2017. The federal government was the largest source of sponsored research, with the Department of Health and Human Services granting $255.9 million, Department of Defense $97.5 million, Department of Energy $65.8 million, National Science Foundation $61.4 million, and NASA $27.4 million. MIT employs approximately 1300 researchers in addition to faculty. In 2011, MIT faculty and researchers disclosed 632 inventions, were issued 153 patents, earned $85.4 million in cash income, and received $69.6 million in royalties. Through programs like the Deshpande Center, MIT faculty leverage their research and discoveries into multi-million-dollar commercial ventures.\n\nIn electronics, magnetic core memory, radar, single electron transistors, and inertial guidance controls were invented or substantially developed by MIT researchers. Harold Eugene Edgerton was a pioneer in high speed photography and sonar. Claude E. Shannon developed much of modern information theory and discovered the application of Boolean logic to digital circuit design theory. In the domain of computer science, MIT faculty and researchers made fundamental contributions to cybernetics, artificial intelligence, computer languages, machine learning, robotics, and cryptography. At least nine Turing Award laureates and seven recipients of the Draper Prize in engineering have been or are currently associated with MIT.\n\nCurrent and previous physics faculty have won eight Nobel Prizes, four Dirac Medals, and three Wolf Prizes predominantly for their contributions to subatomic and quantum theory. Members of the chemistry department have been awarded three Nobel Prizes and one Wolf Prize for the discovery of novel syntheses and methods. MIT biologists have been awarded six Nobel Prizes for their contributions to genetics, immunology, oncology, and molecular biology. Professor Eric Lander was one of the principal leaders of the Human Genome Project. Positronium atoms, synthetic penicillin, synthetic self-replicating molecules, and the genetic bases for Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig\'s disease) and Huntington\'s disease were first discovered at MIT. Jerome Lettvin transformed the study of cognitive science with his paper "What the frog\'s eye tells the frog\'s brain". Researchers developed a system to convert MRI scans into 3D printed physical models.\n\nIn the domain of humanities, arts, and social sciences, as of October 2019 MIT economists have been awarded seven Nobel Prizes and nine John Bates Clark Medals. Linguists Noam Chomsky and Morris Halle authored seminal texts on generative grammar and phonology. The MIT Media Lab, founded in 1985 within the School of Architecture and Planning and known for its unconventional research, has been home to influential researchers such as constructivist educator and Logo creator Seymour Papert.\n\nSpanning many of the above fields, MacArthur Fellowships (the so-called "Genius Grants") have been awarded to 50 people associated with MIT. Five Pulitzer Prize–winning writers currently work at or have retired from MIT. Four current or former faculty are members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters.\n\nAllegations of research misconduct or improprieties have received substantial press coverage. Professor David Baltimore, a Nobel Laureate, became embroiled in a misconduct investigation starting in 1986 that led to Congressional hearings in 1991. Professor Ted Postol has accused the MIT administration since 2000 of attempting to whitewash potential research misconduct at the Lincoln Lab facility involving a ballistic missile defense test, though a final investigation into the matter has not been completed. Associate Professor Luk Van Parijs was dismissed in 2005 following allegations of scientific misconduct and found guilty of the same by the United States Office of Research Integrity in 2009.\n\nIn 2019, Clarivate Analytics named 54 members of MIT\'s faculty to its list of "Highly Cited Researchers". That number places MIT 8th among the world\'s universities.\n\nDiscoveries and innovation\n\nNatural sciences \n Oncogene – Robert Weinberg discovered genetic basis of human cancer.\n Reverse transcription – David Baltimore independently isolated, in 1970 at MIT, two RNA tumor viruses: R-MLV and again RSV.\n Thermal death time – Samuel Cate Prescott and William Lyman Underwood from 1895 to 1898. Done for canning of food. Applications later found useful in medical devices, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.\n\nComputer and applied sciences \n Akamai Technologies – Daniel Lewin and Tom Leighton developed a faster content delivery network, now one of the world\'s largest distributed computing platforms, responsible for serving between 15 and 30 percent of all web traffic.\n Cryptography – MIT researchers Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman developed one of the first practical public-key cryptosystems , the RSA cryptosystem, and started a company, RSA Security .\n Digital circuits – Claude Shannon, while a master\'s degree student at MIT, developed the digital circuit design theory which paved the way for modern computers.\n Electronic ink – developed by Joseph Jacobson at MIT Media Lab.\n Emacs (text editor) – development began during the 1970s at the MIT AI Lab.\n Flight recorder (black box) – Charles Stark Draper developed the black box at MIT\'s Instrumentation Laboratory. That lab later made the Apollo Moon landings possible through the Apollo Guidance Computer it designed for NASA.\n GNU Project – Richard Stallman formally founded the free software movement in 1983 by launching the GNU Project at MIT.\n Julia (programming language) - Development was started in 2009, by Jeff Bezanson, Stefan Karpinski, Viral B. Shah, and Alan Edelman, all at MIT at that time, and continued with the contribution of a dedicated MIT Julia Lab\n Lisp (programming language) – John McCarthy invented Lisp at MIT in 1958.\n Lithium-ion battery efficiencies – Yet-Ming Chiang and his group at MIT showed a substantial improvement in the performance of lithium batteries by boosting the material\'s conductivity by doping it with aluminium, niobium and zirconium.\n Macsyma, one of the oldest general-purpose computer algebra systems; the GPL-licensed version Maxima remains in wide use.\n MIT OpenCourseWare – the OpenCourseWare movement started in 1999 when the University of Tübingen in Germany published videos of lectures online for its timms initiative (Tübinger Internet Multimedia Server). The OCW movement only took off, however, with the launch of MIT OpenCourseWare and the Open Learning Initiative at Carnegie Mellon University in October 2002. The movement was soon reinforced by the launch of similar projects at Yale, Utah State University, the University of Michigan and the University of California Berkeley.\n Perdix micro-drone – autonomous drone that uses artificial intelligence to swarm with many other Perdix drones.\n Project MAC – groundbreaking research in operating systems, artificial intelligence, and the theory of computation. DARPA funded project.\n Radar – developed at MIT\'s Radiation Laboratory during World War II.\n SKETCHPAD – invented by Ivan Sutherland at MIT (presented in his PhD thesis). It pioneered the way for human–computer interaction (HCI). Sketchpad is considered to be the ancestor of modern computer-aided design (CAD) programs as well as a major breakthrough in the development of computer graphics in general.\n VisiCalc – first spreadsheet computer program for personal computers, originally released for the Apple II by VisiCorp. MIT alumni Dan Bricklin and Bob Frankston rented time sharing at night on an MIT mainframe computer (that cost $1/hr for use).\n World Wide Web Consortium – founded in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee, (W3C) is the main international standards organization for the World Wide Web\n X Window System – pioneering architecture-independent system for graphical user interfaces that has been widely used for Unix and Linux systems.\n\nCompanies and entrepreneurship \nMIT alumni and faculty have founded numerous companies, some of which are shown below:\n\n Analog Devices, 1965, co-founders Ray Stata, (SB, SM) and Matthew Lorber (SB)\n BlackRock, 1988, co-founder Bennett Golub, (SB, SM, PhD)\n Bose Corporation, 1964, founder Amar Bose (SB, PhD)\n Buzzfeed, 2006, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)\n Dropbox, 2007, founders Drew Houston (SB) and Arash Ferdowsi (drop-out)\n Hewlett-Packard, 1939, co-founder William R. Hewlett (SM)\n HuffPost, 2005, co-founder Jonah Peretti (SM)\n Intel, 1968, co-founder Robert Noyce (PhD)\n Koch Industries, 1940, founder Fred C. Koch (SB), sons William (SB, PhD), David (SB)\n Qualcomm, 1985, co-founders Irwin M. Jacobs (SM, PhD) and Andrew Viterbi (SB, SM)\n Raytheon, 1922, co-founder Vannevar Bush (DEng, Professor)\n Renaissance Technologies, 1982, founder James Simons (SB)\n Texas Instruments, 1930, founder Cecil Howard Green (SB, SM)\n TSMC, 1987, founder Morris Chang (SB, SM)\n VMware, 1998, co-founder Diane Greene (SM)\n\nTraditions and student activities \n\nThe faculty and student body place a high value on meritocracy and on technical proficiency. MIT has never awarded an honorary degree, nor does it award athletic scholarships,  ad eundem degrees, or Latin honors upon graduation. However, MIT has twice awarded honorary professorships: to Winston Churchill in 1949 and Salman Rushdie in 1993.\n\nMany upperclass students and alumni wear a large, heavy, distinctive class ring known as the "Brass Rat". Originally created in 1929, the ring\'s official name is the "Standard Technology Ring". The undergraduate ring design (a separate graduate student version exists as well) varies slightly from year to year to reflect the unique character of the MIT experience for that class, but always features a three-piece design, with the MIT seal and the class year each appearing on a separate face, flanking a large rectangular bezel bearing an image of a beaver. The initialism IHTFP, representing the informal school motto "I Hate This Fucking Place" and jocularly euphemized as "I Have Truly Found Paradise", "Institute Has The Finest Professors", "Institute of Hacks, TomFoolery and Pranks", "It\'s Hard to Fondle Penguins", and other variations, has occasionally been featured on the ring given its historical prominence in student culture.\n\nActivities \n\nMIT has over 500 recognized student activity groups, including a campus radio station, The Tech student newspaper, an annual entrepreneurship competition, a crime club, and weekly screenings of popular films by the Lecture Series Committee. Less traditional activities include the "world\'s largest open-shelf collection of science fiction" in English, a model railroad club, and a vibrant folk dance scene. Students, faculty, and staff are involved in over 50 educational outreach and public service programs through the MIT Museum, Edgerton Center, and MIT Public Service Center.\n\nFraternities and sororities provide a base of activities in addition to housing. Approximately 1,000 undergrads, 48% of men and 30% of women, participate in one of several dozen Greek Life men\'s, women\'s and co-ed chapters on the campus. \n\nThe Independent Activities Period is a four-week-long "term" offering hundreds of optional classes, lectures, demonstrations, and other activities throughout the month of January between the Fall and Spring semesters. Some of the most popular recurring IAP activities are Autonomous Robot Design (course 6.270), Robocraft Programming (6.370), and MasLab competitions, the annual "mystery hunt", and Charm School. More than 250 students pursue externships annually at companies in the US and abroad.\n\nMany MIT students also engage in "hacking", which encompasses both the physical exploration of areas that are generally off-limits (such as rooftops and steam tunnels), as well as elaborate practical jokes. Examples of high-profile hacks have included the abduction of Caltech\'s cannon, reconstructing a Wright Flyer atop the Great Dome, and adorning the John Harvard statue with the Master Chief\'s Mjölnir Helmet.\n\nAthletics \n\nMIT sponsors 31 varsity sports and has one of the three broadest NCAA Division III athletic programs. MIT participates in the NCAA\'s Division III, the New England Women\'s and Men\'s Athletic Conference, the New England Football Conference, NCAA\'s Division I Patriot League for women\'s crew, and the Collegiate Water Polo Association (CWPA) for Men\'s Water Polo. Men\'s crew competes outside the NCAA in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC). The intercollegiate sports teams, called the MIT Engineers won 22 Team National Championships, 42 Individual National Championships. MIT is the all-time Division III leader in producing Academic All-Americas (302) and rank second across all NCAA Divisions only behind the University of Nebraska. MIT Athletes won 13 Elite 90 awards and ranks first among NCAA Division III programs, and third among all divisions. In April 2009, budget cuts led to MIT eliminating eight of its 41 sports, including the mixed men\'s and women\'s teams in alpine skiing and pistol; separate teams for men and women in ice hockey and gymnastics; and men\'s programs in golf and wrestling.\n\nPeople\n\nStudents \n\nMIT enrolled 4,602 undergraduates and 6,972 graduate students in 2018–2019. Undergraduate and graduate students came from all 50 US states as well as from 115 foreign countries.\n\nMIT received 33,240 applications for admission to the undergraduate Class of 2025: it admitted 1,365 (4.1 percent). In 2019, 29,114 applications were received for graduate and advanced degree programs across all departments; 3,670 were admitted (12.6 percent) and 2,312 enrolled (63 percent).\n\nUndergraduate tuition and fees for 2019-2020 was $53,790 for nine months. 59% of students were awarded a need-based MIT scholarship. Graduate tuition and fees for 2019-2020 was also $53,790 for nine months, and summer tuition was $17,800. Financial support for graduate students are provided in large part by individual departments. They include fellowships, traineeships, teaching and research assistantships, and loans. The annual increase in expenses had led to a student tradition (dating back to the 1960s) of tongue-in-cheek "tuition riots".\n\nMIT has been nominally co-educational since admitting Ellen Swallow Richards in 1870. Richards also became the first female member of MIT\'s faculty, specializing in sanitary chemistry. Female students remained a small minority prior to the completion of the first wing of a women\'s dormitory, McCormick Hall, in 1963. Between 1993 and 2009 the proportion of women rose from 34 percent to 45 percent of undergraduates and from 20 percent to 31 percent of graduate students. , women outnumbered men in Biology, Brain & Cognitive Sciences, Architecture, Urban Planning, and Biological Engineering.\n\nFaculty and staff \n\n, MIT had 1,030 faculty members. Faculty are responsible for lecturing classes, for advising both graduate and undergraduate students, and for sitting on academic committees, as well as for conducting original research. Between 1964 and 2009 a total of seventeen faculty and staff members affiliated with MIT won Nobel Prizes (thirteen of them in the latter 25 years). As of October 2020, 37 MIT faculty members, past or present, have won Nobel Prizes, the majority in Economics or Physics.\n\n, current faculty and teaching staff included 67 Guggenheim Fellows, 6 Fulbright Scholars, and 22 MacArthur Fellows. Faculty members who have made extraordinary contributions to their research field as well as the MIT community are granted appointments as Institute Professors for the remainder of their tenures. Susan Hockfield, a molecular neurobiologist, served as MIT\'s president from 2004 to 2012. She was the first woman to hold the post.\n\nMIT faculty members have often been recruited to lead other colleges and universities. Founding faculty-member Charles W. Eliot became president of Harvard University in 1869, a post he would hold for 40 years, during which he wielded considerable influence both on American higher education and on secondary education. MIT alumnus and faculty member George Ellery Hale played a central role in the development of the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), and other faculty members have been key founders of Franklin W. Olin College of Engineering in nearby Needham, Massachusetts.\n\n former provost Robert A. Brown served as president of Boston University; former provost Mark Wrighton is chancellor of Washington University in St. Louis; former associate provost Alice Gast is president of Lehigh University; and former professor Suh Nam-pyo is president of KAIST. Former dean of the School of Science Robert J. Birgeneau was the chancellor of the University of California, Berkeley (2004–2013); former professor John Maeda was president of Rhode Island School of Design (RISD, 2008–2013); former professor David Baltimore was president of Caltech (1997–2006); and MIT alumnus and former assistant professor Hans Mark served as chancellor of the University of Texas system (1984–1992). \n\nIn addition, faculty members have been recruited to lead governmental agencies; for example, former professor Marcia McNutt is president of the National Academy of Sciences, urban studies professor Xavier de Souza Briggs served as the associate director of the White House Office of Management and Budget, and biology professor Eric Lander was a co-chair of the President\'s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology. In 2013, faculty member Ernest Moniz was nominated by President Obama and later confirmed as United States Secretary of Energy. Former professor Hans Mark served as Secretary of the Air Force from 1979 to 1981. Alumna and Institute Professor Sheila Widnall served as Secretary of the Air Force between 1993 and 1997, making her the first female Secretary of the Air Force and first woman to lead an entire branch of the US military in the Department of Defense.\n\n, MIT was the second-largest employer in the city of Cambridge. Based on feedback from employees, MIT was ranked #7 as a place to work, among US colleges and universities . Surveys cited a "smart", "creative", "friendly" environment, noting that the work-life balance tilts towards a "strong work ethic" but complaining about "low pay" compared to an industry position.\n\nNotable alumni \n\nMany of MIT\'s over 120,000 alumni have achieved considerable success in scientific research, public service, education, and  business. , 41 MIT alumni have won Nobel Prizes, 48 have been selected as Rhodes Scholars, 61 have been selected as Marshall Scholars, and 3 have been selected as Mitchell Scholars.\n\nAlumni in United States politics and public service include former Chairman of the Federal Reserve Ben Bernanke, former MA-1 Representative John Olver, former CA-13 Representative Pete Stark, Representative Thomas Massie, Senator Alex Padilla, former  National Economic Council chairman Lawrence H. Summers, and former Council of Economic Advisors chairman Christina Romer. MIT alumni in international politics include Foreign Affairs Minister of Iran Ali Akbar Salehi,  Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu, President of Colombia Virgilio Barco Vargas, President of the European Central Bank Mario Draghi, former Governor of the Reserve Bank of India Raghuram Rajan, former  British Foreign Minister David Miliband, former Greek Prime Minister Lucas Papademos, former UN Secretary General Kofi Annan, former  Iraqi Deputy Prime Minister Ahmed Chalabi, former Minister of Education and Culture of The Republic of Indonesia Yahya Muhaimin, former Jordanian Minister of Education, Higher Education and Scientific Research and former Jordanian Minister of Energy and Mineral Resources Khaled Toukan. Alumni in sports have included Olympic fencing champion Johan Harmenberg.\n\nMIT alumni founded or co-founded many notable companies, such as  Intel,  McDonnell  Douglas,  Texas Instruments, 3Com,  Qualcomm,  Bose,  Raytheon, Apotex,  Koch Industries,  Rockwell International,  Genentech, Dropbox, and  Campbell Soup. According to the British newspaper The Guardian, "a survey of living MIT alumni found that they have formed 25,800 companies, employing more than three million people including about a quarter of the workforce of Silicon Valley. Those firms collectively generate global revenues of about $1.9\xa0trillion (£1.2\xa0trillion) a year". If the companies founded by MIT alumni were a country, they would have the 11th-highest GDP of any country in the world.\n\nMIT alumni have  led prominent institutions of higher education, including the  University of California system,  Harvard University, the New York Institute of Technology,  Johns Hopkins University,  Carnegie Mellon University,  Tufts University,  Rochester Institute of Technology,  Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), UC Berkeley College of Environmental Design, the New Jersey Institute of Technology,  Northeastern University, Tel Aviv University,  Lahore University of Management Sciences,  Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute,  Tecnológico de Monterrey, Purdue University,  Virginia Polytechnic Institute, KAIST, and  Quaid-e-Azam University. Berklee College of Music, the largest independent college of contemporary music in the world, was founded and led by MIT alumnus Lawrence Berk for more than three decades.\n\nMore than one third of the United States\' crewed spaceflights have included  MIT-educated astronauts, a contribution exceeding that of any university excluding the United States service academies. Of the 12 people who have set foot on the Moon , four graduated from MIT (among them Apollo 11 Lunar Module Pilot Buzz Aldrin). Alumnus and former faculty member Qian Xuesen led the Chinese nuclear-weapons program and became instrumental in the  PRC rocket-program.\n\nNoted alumni in non-scientific fields include author Hugh Lofting, sculptor Daniel Chester French, guitarist Tom Scholz of the band  Boston, the British BBC and ITN correspondent and political advisor David Walter, The New York Times columnist and Nobel Prize-winning economist Paul Krugman, The Bell Curve author Charles Murray, United States Supreme Court building architect Cass Gilbert,\nPritzker Prize-winning architects I.M. Pei and Gordon Bunshaft.\n\nSee also \n\n The Coop, campus bookstore\n Engineering\n Glossary of engineering\nMurray Eden\n\nNotes\n\nReferences\n\nCitations\n\nSources \n Also see the bibliography maintained by MIT\'s Institute Archives & Special Collections and Written Works in MIT in popular culture.\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Nelkin, Dorothy. (1972). The University and Military Research: Moral politics at MIT (science, technology and society). New York: Cornell University Press. .\n \n \n Postle, Denis. (1965). How to be First. BBC documentary on MIT available at reidplaza.com\n Renehan, Colm. (2007). Peace Activism at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1975 to 2001: A case study, PhD thesis, Boston: Boston College.\n\nExternal links \n\n \n \n\n \nUniversities and colleges in Cambridge, Massachusetts\nUniversities and colleges in Middlesex County, Massachusetts\nEngineering universities and colleges in Massachusetts\nTechnological universities in the United States\nLand-grant universities and colleges\nEducational institutions established in 1861\n1861 establishments in Massachusetts\nRugby league stadiums in the United States\nScience and technology in Massachusetts\nPrivate universities and colleges in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '39599865',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle%20Eastern%20Americans',
  'title': 'Middle Eastern Americans',
  'text': 'Middle Eastern Americans are Americans of Middle Eastern background. According to the United States Census Bureau, the term "Middle Eastern American" applies to anyone of West Asian or North African origin. This includes people whose background is from the various Middle Eastern and West Asian ethnic groups, such as the Kurds and Assyrians, as well as immigrants from modern-day countries of the Arab world, Iran, Israel, Turkey and sometimes Armenia.\n\nAlthough once considered Asian Americans, the modern definition of "Asian American" now excludes people with West Asian backgrounds.\n\nHistory\n\nOne of the first large groups of immigration from the Middle East to the United States came by boat from the Ottoman Empire in the late 1800s. Although U.S. officials referred to them as Turkish, most referred to themselves as Syrian, and it is estimated that 85 percent of these Ottoman immigrants came from modern Lebanon. Later, new categories were created for Syrians and Lebanese.\n\nThe number of Armenians who migrated to the US from 1820 to 1898 is estimated to be around 4,000 and according to the Bureau of Immigration, 54,057 Armenians entered the US between 1899 and 1917, with the vast majority coming from the Ottoman Empire. The largest Armenian American communities at that time were located in New York City; Fresno; Worcester, Massachusetts; Boston; Philadelphia; Chicago; Jersey City; Detroit; Los Angeles; Troy, New York; and Cleveland.\n\nAnother wave of immigration from the Middle East began in 1946, peaking after the 1960s. Since 1968, these immigrants have arrived from such countries as Iran, Iraq, Israel, Palestine, Syria, Egypt, and Lebanon.\n\nPopulation\n\nThe population of Middle Eastern Americans totals at least 10 million. In 2012 Pew Research estimated the population of Arab Americans to be 3.7 million people) and in 2014 the U.S. Secretary of Commerce stated that there were over 1 million Turkish Americans in the U.S.\n\nThe population of Middle Eastern Americans includes both Arabs and non-Arabs. In their definitions of Middle Eastern Americans, United States Census Bureau and the National Health Interview Survey include peoples (diasporic or otherwise) from present-day Iran, Israel, Turkey and Armenia.\n\nAs of 2013, an estimated 1.02 million immigrants from the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) lived in the United States, making up 2.5 percent of the country\'s 41.3 million immigrants. Middle Eastern and North African immigrants have primarily settled in California (20%), Michigan (11%), and New York (10%). Data from the United States Census Bureau shows that from 2009 to 2013, the four counties with the most MENA immigrants were Los Angeles County, California; Wayne County, Michigan (Detroit), Cook County, Illinois (Chicago), and Kings County, New York (Brooklyn); these four counties collectively "accounted for about 19 percent of the total MENA immigrant population in the United States."\n\nBy ethnicity \nAlthough the United States census has recorded race and ethnicity since the first census in 1790, this information has been voluntary since the end of the Civil War (non-whites were counted differently from 1787 to 1868 for the purpose of determining congressional representation). As such, these statistics do not include those who did not volunteer this optional information, and so the census underestimates the total populations of each ethnicity actually present.\n\nAlthough tabulated, "religious responses" were reported as a single total and not differentiated, despite totaling 1,089,597 in 2000.\n\nIndependent organizations provide improved estimates of the total populations of races and ethnicities in the US using the raw data from the US Census and other surveys.\n\nSimilarly, the Arab-American Institute estimated the population of Arab Americans at 3.7\xa0million in 2012.\n\nAccording to a 2002 Zogby International survey, the majority of Arab Americans are Christian; the survey showed that 24% of Arab Americans were Muslim, 63% were Christian and 13% belonged to another religion or no religion. Christian Arab Americans include Maronites, Melkites, Chaldeans, Orthodox Christians, and Copts; Muslim Arab Americans primarily adhere to one of the two main Islamic denominations, Sunni and Shia.\n\nNotable People\n\nAcademia\nElias J. Corey, organic chemistry professor at Harvard University, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Lebanese parents)\n Ahmed Zewail, Egyptian-American scientist, known as the "father of femtochemistry", winner of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry\nMichael E. DeBakey, pioneering Lebanese-American cardiovascular surgeon and researcher, 1963 Lasker Award laureate\nOmar M. Yaghi, Jordanian-American reticular chemistry pioneer; winner of the 2018 Wolf Prize in Chemistry\nMostafa El-Sayed, Egyptian-American US National Medal of Science laureate; leading nanoscience researcher; known for the spectroscopy rule named after him, the El-Sayed rule\n Farouk El-Baz Egyptian-American space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon\n Huda Zoghbi, Lebanese-American physician and medical researcher who discovered the genetic cause of the Rett syndrome\n Huda Akil, pioneering Syrian-American neuroscientist and medical researcher\n Yasmine Belkaid, Algerian-American immunologist, professor and a senior investigator at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases\n Hunein Maassab, Syrian-American professor of epidemiology and the inventor of the live attenuated influenza vaccine\n Joanne Chory, plant biologist and geneticist (Lebanese)\n Anthony Atala, Director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine (Lebanese)\n Noureddine Melikechi, Algerian-American Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physicist, member of the Mars Science Laboratory\nMichel T. Halbouty, Lebanese-American geologist and geophysicist; pioneer in oil field research\n Adah al-Mutairi (Saudi Arabian), inventor and scholar in nanotechnology and nanomedicine\n M. Amin Arnaout, Lebanese-American nephrologist and biologist\n Essam Heggy, Egyptian-American Planetary scientist\n Shadia Habbal, Syrian-American astronomer and physicist specialized in Space physics\nMohamed Atalla, engineer, inventor of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), pioneer in silicon semiconductors and security systems, founder of Atalla Corporation\n Charles Elachi, Lebanese-American professor of electrical engineering and planetary science at Caltech and the former director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory\n Fawwaz T. Ulaby Syrian-American professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, former Vice President of Research for the University of Michigan; first Arab-American winner of the IEEE Edison Medal\nTaher ElGamal, Egyptian-American cryptographer, inventor of the ElGamal discrete log cryptosystem and the ElGamal signature scheme\n Ali H. Nayfeh, Palestinian-American mechanical engineer, the 2014 recipient of Benjamin Franklin Medal in mechanical engineering\n Dina Katabi, Syrian-American Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT and the director of the MIT Wireless Center.\nAbbas El Gamal, Egyptian-American electrical engineer, educator and entrepreneur, the recipient of the 2012 Claude E. Shannon Award\n Oussama Khatib, roboticist and a professor of computer science \n Elias Zerhouni, former director of the National Institutes of Health (Algerian)\n Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Lebanese-American technology innovator. He received 43 patents covering his work. Among the patents were reported innovations in television transmission.\n Mohammad S. Obaidat (Jordanian), computer science/engineering academic and scholar\nCharbel Farhat, Vivian Church Hoff Professor of Aircraft Structures; Director of the Army High Performance Computing Research Center; Chair of the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University (Lebanese)\nHany Farid, professor of computer science at Dartmouth College, pioneer in Digital forensics (Egyptian)\nAhmed Tewfik, Egyptian-American electrical engineer, Professor and college administrator\nMunther A. Dahleh, Professor and Director at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Palestinian)\nIsmail al-Faruqi, philosopher, professor (Palestinian)\nFouad Ajami, Professor of International Relations (Lebanese)\nSaddeka Arebi, professor of anthropology at UC Berkeley (Libyan)\nMohammed Adam El-Sheikh, executive director of the Fiqh Council of North America (Sudanese)\nSamih Farsoun, sociology professor at the American University (Palestinian)\nPhilip Khuri Hitti, historian of Arab culture and history (Lebanese)\nPhilip S. Khoury, Ford International Professor of History and Associate Provost at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (Lebanese)\nLaura Nader, cultural anthropologist (Lebanese)\nEdward Said, Palestinian-Lebanese American literary theorist and former professor at Columbia University\nAhmed Ismail Samatar, prominent writer, professor and former dean of the Institute for Global Citizenship at Macalester College; Somali ancestry\n Nada Shabout, art historian and professor of art history at University of North Texas (Palestinian-Iraqi)\n Naseer Aruri, Chancellor Professor of Political Science at University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth (Palestinian)\n Nadia Abu El Haj, Author & Professor of Anthropology at Barnard College and subject of a major tenure controversy case at Columbia University (Palestinian)\n Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, former Director of Graduate Studies at Northwestern University, father of Lila Abu-Lughod (Palestinian)\n Lila Abu-Lughod, professor of Anthropology and Women\'s and Gender Studies at Columbia University (Palestinian)\n Leila Farsakh, professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts, Boston (Palestinian)\n Samih Farsoun, professor of sociology at American University and editor of Arab Studies Quarterly (Palestinian)\n Nadia Hijab, Journalist with Middle East Magazine and Senior Fellow at the Institute for Palestine Studies (Palestinian)\n Rashid Khalidi, Edward Said Professor of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University (Palestinian-Lebanese)\n Joseph Massad, professor at Columbia University known for his work on nationalism and sexuality in the Arab world (Palestinian)\n Hisham Sharabi  Professor Emeritus of History and Umar al-Mukhtar Chair of Arab Culture at Georgetown University (Palestinian)\n Rosemarie Said Zahlan, historian, journalist & author, sister of Edward Said (Palestinian-Lebanese)\n Steven Salaita, former Professor of English at Virginia Tech, winner of Myers Outstanding Book Award for the Study of Human Rights 2007 (Palestinian)\n Majid Khadduri, academic and founder of the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies Middle East Studies program (Iraqi)\n Thomas L. Saaty, Assyrian-Iraqi University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh\n Ella Shohat, professor, author and activist (Iraqi-Jewish)\n Saadi Simawe, translator, novelist and teacher (Iraqi)\n Aziz Sancar, Biochemist and molecular biologist specializing in DNA repair, cell cycle checkpoints, and circadian clock. Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 2015 (Turkish)\n Donny George Youkhanna,  Iraqi archaeologist, anthropologist, author, curator, and scholar, and a visiting professor at Stony Brook University in New York, internationally known as "the man who saved the Iraqi National Museum."\nImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, teaches religion, science, and freedom at the University of Maryland, College Park; directs the Minaret of Freedom Institute (Palestinian)\nMuhsin Mahdi, Iraqi-American Islamologist and Arabist.\nTalal Asad, anthropologist at the CUNY Graduate Center. (Saudi Arabian)\nMitch Daniels, President of Purdue University (Syrian)\nDonna Shalala, President of the University of Miami (Lebanese)\nJoseph E. Aoun, president of Northeastern University (Lebanese)\nRobert Khayat, chancellor of the University of Mississippi (Lebanese)\nBehnaam Aazhang, J.S. Abercrombie Professor in Electrical and Computer Engineering at Rice University (Iranian)\nKamyar Abdi, archaeologist, former assistant professor in the Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College (Iranian)\nAlexander Abian, mathematician, Iowa State University (Iranian-Armenian)\nMohammad Javad Abdolmohammadi,  John E. Rhodes Professor of Accounting at Bentley University since 1988. (Iranian)\nErvand Abrahamian, historian of Middle Eastern (particularly Iranian) history at City University of New York (Iranian)\nJanet Afary, author, feminist activist, and professor of Religious Studies at the University of California, Santa Barbara. (Iranian)\nGholam Reza Afkhami, senior scholar and director of Social Science Research and International Studies at the Foundation for Iranian Studies\nShahriar Afshar, physicist and inventor who is the namesake of the Afshar experiment\nNewsha Ajami, hydrologist specializing in urban water policy and sustainable water management; professor and Director of Urban Water Policy program at Stanford University\nAbass Alavi, professor of radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Neurology at the University of Pennsylvania\nLeonardo Alishan,  professor of Persian and Comparative Literature at the University of Utah (1978–1997)\nAbbas Alizadeh, archeologist of ancient Iran;  former Senior Research Associate and Director of the Iranian Prehistoric Project at the University of Chicago\nAbbas Amanat, Professor of History & International Studies at Yale University\nHooshang Amirahmadi, academic and political analyst. Professor of the Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy at Rutgers University\nNahid Angha, Sufi scholar,. Co-director and co-founder of the International Association of Sufism (IAS), founder of the International Sufi Women Organization, and executive editor of the journal Sufism: An Inquiry\nAnousheh Ansari, first Iranian in space and the first female space tourist;\nNima Arkani-Hamed, theoretical physicist and professor at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton, New Jersey\nAbbas Ardehali, surgical director of UCLA\'s Heart and Lung Transplant program\nSaïd Amir Arjomand, professor of sociology at Stony Brook University, and Director of the Stony Brook Institute of Global Studies. Founding Editor of the Journal of Persianate Studies\nYahya Armajani, professor of history and soccer coach at Macalester College\nReza Aslan, scholar of religious studies, television host, and author of No God but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam and Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth. Currently a professor of creative writing at University of California, Riverside. Board member of the National Iranian American Council (NAIC)\nAbolhassan Astaneh-Asl, structural engineer and professor at University of California, Berkeley; investigated the collapse of the World Trade Center towers due to the September 11 attacks\nFakhreddin Azimi, professor of history at the University of Connecticut\nBabak Azizzadeh, facial plastic and reconstructive surgeon, Keck School of Medicine of USC\nSussan Babaie, art historian and curator, specialist in Persian art and Islamic art of the early modern period.especially the Safavid dynasty\nShaul Bakhash, historian, expert in Iranian studies, George Mason University, Clarence J. Robinson Professor of History\nLaleh Bakhtiar, author and translator of 25 books about Islam, many of which deal with Sufism. She is best known for her 2007 translation of the Qur\'an, known as The Sublime Quran,\nMehrsa Baradaran, law professor specializing in banking law at University of Georgia\nIraj Bashiri, professor of History at the University of Minnesota specialist in the fields of Central Asian studies and Iranian studies\nAsef Bayat, professor of sociology and Middle Eastern studies at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign\nManuel Berberian, earth scientist, specializing in earthquake seismology, geophysics, archaeoseismology, and environmental geoscience\nMina Bissell, scientist and biologist known for research on breast cancer; former head of life science at the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory\nGeorge Bournoutian, historian, professor of history at Iona College, and author of over 30 books on the history of Armenia, Iran, and the Caucasus\nJennifer Tour Chayes, mathematical physicist & theoretical computer scientist, and world renowned leading expert on the modeling & analysis of dynamically growing graphs. Founder, Technical Fellow, & Managing Director of Microsoft Research New England & Microsoft Research New York\nHouchang Chehabi, historian, expert in Iranian studies at the Frederick S. Pardee School of Global Studies, Boston University, where he is professor of International Relations and History\nAaron Cohen-Gadol, internationally renowned neurosurgeon specializing in surgical treatment of brain tumors and aneurysms\nHamid Dabashi, Professor of Iranian Studies and Comparative Literature at Columbia University in New York City\nJaleh Daie, scientist, former professor of biology and department chairs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison and Rutgers University\nRichard Danielpour, Professor of Composition, Manhattan School of Music\nTouraj Daryaee, Iranologist and historian at the University of California, Irvine\nArmen Der Kiureghian, professor of civil engineering at University of California, Berkeley, member of U.S. National Academy of Engineering,  current President of the American University of Armenia\nKeivan Deravi, economist at Auburn University at Montgomery\nSibel Edmonds, former translator who worked as a contractor for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI); founder of the National Security Whistleblowers Coalition (NSWBC)\nAzita Emami, Andrew and Peggy Cherng Professor of Electrical Engineering and Medical Engineering at Caltech; Executive Officer of the Department of Electrical Engineering at Caltech\nNader Engheta, H. Nedwill Ramsey Professor of Electrical and Systems Engineering at the University of Pennsylvania. He has made pioneering contributions to the fields of metamaterials, transformation and plasmonic optics, nano- and graphene photonics, nano- and miniature antennas, and bio-inspired optical imaging, among many others\nDara Entekhabi, Bacardi and Stockholm Water Foundations Professor in the Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering and the Department of Earth, Atmospheric & Planetary Sciences at MIT. His main expertise is in the field of hydrology.\nHaleh Esfandiari, Middle East scholar and former director of the Middle East Program at the Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars. She is an expert on contemporary Iranian intellectual currents and politics, as well as women\'s issues and democratic developments in the Middle East. She was one of the four Iranian-Americans falsely convicted and detained by the Iranian government in May 2007.\nKamran Eshraghian, electrical engineer, notable for his work on VLSI and CMOS VLSI design\nFariba Fahroo, mathematician, program manager at the Air Force Office of Scientific Research. Along with I. M. Ross, she has published papers in pseudospectral optimal control theory. The Ross–Fahroo lemma and the Ross–Fahroo pseudospectral method are named after her\nFereydoon Family, leading physicist in the field of nanotechnology and solid-state physics. He is the Samuel Candler Dobbs Professor of Physics at Emory University\nAllah Verdi Mirza Farman Farmaian, professor and head of Biology department at Rutgers University\nSattareh Farmanfarmaian, founder and director of the Tehran School of Social Work. Co-founder of the Family Planning Association of Iran, and former vice-president of the International Planned Parenthood Federation\nAlimorad Farshchian, medical doctor, medical author, and founder and director of The Center of Regenerative Medicine in Miami, Florida\nNariman Farvardin, President of Stevens Institute of Technology, and former Provost of University of Maryland\nBobak Ferdowsi, systems engineer at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory; served on the Cassini–Huygens and Mars Science Laboratory Curiosity mission.\nAlexander L. George (born Alexander L. Givargis), behavioral scientist specialist in the psychological effects of nuclear crisis management,  Graham H. Stuart Professor of Political Science Emeritus at Stanford University\nMohammadreza Ghadiri, chemist and professor of chemistry at The Scripps Research Institute.  Awarded the Feynman Prize in Nanotechnology in 1998\nRoozbeh Ghaffari, inventor, bioelectronics entrepreneur, biomedical engineering research faculty at Northwestern University\nZoubin Ghahramani, Professor of Information Engineering at the University of Cambridge\nKambiz GhaneaBassiri, professor of religion at Reed College, and author of A History of Islam in America and Competing Visions of Islam in the United States.\nM.R. Ghanoonparvar, Professor Emeritus of Persian and Comparative Literature at the faculty of Middle Eastern studies at the University of Texas, Austin\nMorteza Gharib, Hans W. Liepmann Professor of Aeronautics and Bio-Inspired Engineering at Caltech.\nJamshid Gharajedaghi, organizational theorist, management consultant, & adjunct professor of Systems thinking at Villanova University. B\nJohn Ghazvinian, author, historian and former journalist. Associate Director of the Middle East Center at the University of Pennsylvania.\nDoreen Granpeesheh, clinical psychologist,  and producer of the documentary Recovered: Journeys Through the Autism Spectrum and Back.\nVartan Gregorian, President of The Carnegie Corporation of New York and former president of Brown University\nMohammad Hajiaghayi, computer scientist known for his work in algorithms, game theory, network design, and big data.  Jack and Rita G. Minker professor at the University of Maryland Dept. of Computer Science.\nAli Hajimiri, inventor, technologist, and Thomas G. Myers Professor of Electrical Engineering at Caltech. Fellow of the National Academy of Inventors (NAI)\nReza Hamzaee, economist and BOG-Distinguished Professor of Economics at Missouri Western State University. Specialist in banking and managerial economics\nBabak Hassibi, electrical engineer, the inaugural Mose and Lillian S. Bohn Professor of Electrical Engineering. Specialist in communications, signal processing and control.\nPayam Heydari, Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, University of California, Irvine\nShireen Hunter, Research Professor at the Center for Muslim-Christian Understanding at Georgetown University.\nAhmad Iravani, philosopher, scholar, and clergyman. . Professor of theology at the University of California, Davis. Founder, president, and executive director of "Center for the Study of Islam and the Middle East"\nAli Jadbabaie, systems theorist, network scientist, and the JR East Professor of Engineering at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nAli Jafari, professor of Computer and Information Technology at Purdue University, Director of the CyberLab at Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI)\nHamid Jafarkhani, leading communication theorist and Chancellor\'s Professor of electrical engineering and computer science at the University of California, Irvine\nRamin Jahanbegloo, philosopher at University of Toronto\nFarnam Jahanian, computer scientist and the 10th president of Carnegie Mellon University\nAli Javan, physicist, inventor of gas laser; Professor Emeritus of Physics at MIT\nHassan Jawahery, physicist, former spokesman of the BaBar Collaboration, and professor of Physics at the University of Maryland\nMajd Kamalmaz, psychotherapist who has been illegally detained in Syria since 2017\nSepandar Kamvar, computer scientist, Stanford University\nMehran Kardar, physicist and professor of physics at MIT, and co-faculty at the New England Complex Systems Institute\nMorvarid Karimi, neurologist and medical researcher, specialist in neuroimaging of the pathophysiology of movement disorders. She was an assistant professor of Neurology in the Movement Disorders Section at Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis, MO\nAhmad Karimi-Hakkak, Iranist, scholar of modern Persian literature, and Professor and Founding Director of the Roshan Center for Persian Studies at the University of Maryland\nElham Kazemi, mathematics educator and educational psychologist; Geda and Phil Condit Professor in Math and Science Education in the College of Education of the University of Washington\nFiruz Kazemzadeh, historian of Russian and Iranian history, and Professor Emeritus of history at Yale University.\nHomayoon Kazerooni, roboticist & professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley; director of the Berkeley Robotics and Human Engineering Laboratory\nFatemeh Keshavarz, scholar of Rumi and Farsi language & poetry, and poet in Persian and English;  Director & Chair of Roshan Institute for Persian Studies at the University of Maryland. Previously, was a professor of Persian Language and Comparative Literature at Washington University in Saint Louis\nAli Khademhosseini, Levi Knight Endowed Professor at the University of California-Los Angeles. Holds a professorship in bioengineering, radiology, chemical, and biomolecular engineering.\nLaleh Khalili, professor of Middle Eastern Politics at the School of Oriental and African Studies at the University of London. She also writes regularly for Iranian.com\nFarid Khavari, economist, specialist in economics, environment, oil, healthcare, & the Middle East.\nSamira Kiani, Health Systems Engineer at Arizona State University. Her work combines CRISPR technology with synthetic biology. She is a 2019 AAAS Leshner Fellow.\nFarinaz Koushanfar, professor and Henry Booker Faculty Scholar of Electrical and Computer Engineering at the University of California, San Diego\nHabib Levy, historian, specialist in the history of Jews in Iran; author of Comprehensive History of the Jews of Iran: The Outset of the Diaspora.\nEsfandiar Maasoumi, econometrician and economist. He is a Distinguished Professor at Emory University and a fellow of the Royal Statistical Society\nMohammad Jafar Mahjoub, prominent Iranian scholar of Persian literature, essayist, translator, and professor. Moved to the U.S. in 1991 and taught at the University of California, Berkeley\nHoooman Majd, journalist, author, and commentator\nG. A. Mansoori, professor of chemical engineering at University of Illinois at Chicago\nAlireza Mashaghi, biophysicist and medical scientist at Leiden University and Harvard University\nBahram Mashhoon, general relativity physicist and professor of physics at the University of Missouri. Through his research works, he has given important contributions to general relativity, particularly to the gravitomagnetic clock effect. He is also active in the field of non-local gravity\nDaron Acemoglu, economist at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\nViken Babikian, professor at Boston University School of Medicine\nPeter Balakian, professor of Humanities at Colgate University\nPaul Boghossian, professor of philosophy at New York University\nPeter Boghossian, professor of philosophy at Portland State University\nAram Chobanian, Dean of Boston University School of Medicine\nHarry Daghlian, academic scientist\nRichard Dekmejian, professor at University of Southern California\nJames Der Derian, Watson Institute professor of International Studies and Political Science at Brown University\nEdward Goljan, professor of Pathology at Oklahoma State University Center for Health Sciences\nHrach Gregorian, writer and teacher on international conflict management and post-conflict peace building\nVartan Gregorian, former President of Brown University and current President of the Carnegie Corporation\nMarjorie Housepian Dobkin (1922–2013), professor emerita of English at Barnard College.\nRichard G. Hovannisian, professor of Armenian History at UCLA\nRaffi Indjejikian, professor of accounting at University of Michigan\nJoseph Albert Kechichian, author\nMark Krikorian, executive director of Center for Immigration Studies\nRobert Mehrabian, President of Carnegie Mellon\nGevork Minaskanian, professor of organic chemistry at Virginia Commonwealth University\nJosh Pahigian, professor of global humanities at the University of New England\nGeorge Piranian, professor of mathematics at the University of Michigan\nBarbara Sahakian, professor of Clinical Neuropsychology at University of Cambridge\nMark Saroyan, professor of Soviet studies at Harvard and UC Berkeley\nRashid Massumi, cardiologist and clinical professor, best known for his pioneering research in the field of electrophysiology. He was also known for bringing modern cardiology to Iran, and for being the cardiologist to the last Shah of Iran and, until 1980, Ayatollah Khomeini\nNoah McKay (born Nasser Talebzadeh Ordoubadi), physician and author of Wellness at Warp Speed\nRobert Mehrabian, material scientist, former president of Carnegie Mellon University, and chair, president, and CEO of Teledyne Technologies\nHoura Merrikh, microbiologist and a full professor at Vanderbilt University\nAbbas Milani, Director of Iranian Studies Program at Stanford University; research fellow & co-director of the "Iran Democracy Project" at Stanford\'s Hoover Institution\nFarzaneh Milani, professor of Persian Literature & Women\'s Studies at the University of Virginia, and the Chair of the Department of Middle Eastern and South Asian Languages & Cultures.\nMohsen Milani, foreign policy analyst,   and professor of politics at the University of South Florida\nAbbas Mirakhor, economist; former executive director and dean of board of the International Monetary Fund (INF);  Distinguished Scholar and chair in Islamic Finance at Malaysia\'s INCEIF (International Centre for Education in Islamic Finance)\nMaryam Mirzakhani, Stanford University professor; first female winner of the Fields Medal\nAfshin Molavi, author and expert on global geo-political risk and geo-economics, particularly the Middle East and Asia.\nJasmin Moghbeli, NASA astronaut candidate of the class of 2017\nMehryar Mohri, professor of computer science at the Courant Institute of Mathematical Sciences at New York University. Specialist in machine learning, automata theory and algorithms, speech recognition and natural language processing\nParviz Moin, fluid dynamicist, Professor of Mechanical Engineering at Stanford University. 2011 inductee to the United States National Academy of Sciences\nMohsen Mostafavi, architect and educator, Dean and Alexander and Victoria Wiley Professor at the Harvard Graduate School of Design\nFarzad Mostashari, internal medicine physician, former national coordinator for health information technology at U.S. Department of Health and Human Services\nHossein Khan Motamed, surgeon, founder of the Motamed Hospital in Tehran, Iran, and personal physician of Mohammad Reza Shah.\nNegar Mottahedeh, cultural critic and film theorist\nRoy Mottahedeh, Gurney Professor of History, Emeritus at Harvard University, specialist in pre-modern social and intellectual history of the Islamic Middle East. Former director of Harvard\'s Center for Middle Eastern Studies (1987–1990), and inaugural director of Harvard\'s Prince Alwaleed Bin Talal Islamic Studies Program (2005–2011)\nHamid Mowlana, Professor Emeritus of International Relations and founding director of the Division of International Communication at the School of International Service at American University. In 2003, he was honored as a "Chehrehaye Mandegar" (Eternal One) by Iranian universities and academies.\nEden Naby, Iranian-Assyrian cultural historian of Central Asia and the Middle East, who is notable for her publications, research, and preservation work on Assyrian culture and history\nFirouz Naderi, former NASA director of Mars project. Has also served in other various technical and executive positions at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory.\nHamid Naficy, cholar of cultural studies of diaspora, exile, & postcolonial cinemas and media, and of Iranian & Middle Eastern cinemas.  Hamad Bin Khalifa Al-Thani Professor in Communication at Northwestern University .\nPaul M. Naghdi, professor of mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. Specialist in continuum mechanics\nMajid M. Naini (مجید ناینی), Rumi scholar, computer scientist, former professor at University of Pennsylvania,  writer on poetry, science, technology, and mysticism\nKayvan Najarian, associate professor of computer science, Virginia Commonwealth University\nSeyyed Hossein Nasr, professor of Islamic studies at George Washington University; prominent Islamic philosopher\nVali Nasr, author and scholar on the Middle East and Islamic world; Served as Dean of the Johns Hopkins School of Advanced International Studies (SAIS) in Washington D.C.\nAngella Nazarian (née Angella Maddahi), former professor of psychology at Mount St. Mary\'s University, California State University, Long Beach & the Los Angeles Valley College.  Co-founder of Looking Beyond\nCamran Nezhat, laparoscopic surgeon and director of Stanford Endoscopy Center for Training & Technology, Stanford University\nKathy Niakan, human developmental and stem cell biologist. In 2016, she became the first scientist in the world to gain regulatory approval to edit the genomes of human embryos for research.\nReza Olfati-Saber, roboticist and Assistant Professor of Engineering at Dartmouth College\nKaveh Pahlavan, Professor of Computer and Electrical Engineering, professor of computer science, and director of the Center for Wireless Information Network Studies (CWINS) at the Worcester Polytechnic Institute\nFirouz Partovi, physicist; founder and former chairman of the Faculty of Physics at the Sharif University of Technology. He has also taught at MIT and Harvard University.\nMassoud Pedram, computer engineer known for his research in green computing, power optimization (EDA), low power electronics and design, and electronic design automation.\nGholam A. Peyman, ophthalmologist, retina surgeon, and inventor of LASIK eye surgery\nNader Pourmand, professor of biomolecular engineering at the Baskin School of Engineering\nAli R. Rabi, scholar at the Center for International Development and Conflict Management at University of Maryland, College Park;  founding chair of the Middle Eastern Citizens Assembly; Initiated the International University of Iran in 2001.\nSamuel Rahbar, biomedical scientist, discovered the linkage between HbA1C and diabetes\nHazhir Rahmandad, engineer and expert in dynamic modeling and system dynamics. Associate Professor in the System Dynamics group at the MIT Sloan School of Management.\nYahya Rahmat-Samii, professor and the Northrop Grumman Chair in Electromagnetics at Electrical Engineering Department at UCLA\nBehzad Razavi, professor of electrical engineering and director of the Communications Circuit Laboratory at the University of California, Los Angeles. y\nManijeh Razeghi, Walter P. Murphy Professor & Director of the Center for Quantum Devices at Northwestern University, pioneer in semiconductors and optoelectronic devices.\nZabihollah Rezaee, accountant, Thompson-Hill Chair of Excellence and professor of accounting at the University of Memphis\nSakineh (Simin) M. Redjali, psychologist and author. She was the first female professor at the National University of Iran\nDarius Rejali, professor of political science at Reed College and scholar specialized in the study of torture. He has served on the board of the Human Rights Review since 2000.\nNouriel Roubini, one of the leading economists of our age; professor of economics at the Stern School of Business, New York University; chairman of RGE Monitor\nPardis Sabeti, world-renowned computational geneticist, assistant professor, Center for Systems Biology and Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University\nAhmad Sadri, sociologist and professor of Sociology and Anthropology at Lake Forest College, and the James P. Gorter Professor of Islamic World Studies since 2007. Active in the reform movement in Iran.\nMahmoud Sadri, professor of Sociology at the Federation of North Texas Area Universities. His major interests are in religious, cultural & theoretical sociology, reform Islam and interfaith dialogue.\nOmid Safi, Professor of Asian and Middle Eastern studies at Duke University, Director of the Duke Islamic Studies Center, and columnist for On Being. Scholar of Islamic mysticism (Sufism)\nMehran Sahami, professor and the Associate Chair for Education in the Computer Science department at Stanford University.  Robert and Ruth Halperin University Fellow in Undergraduate Education at Stanford.\nMuhammad Sahimi, Professor of Chemical Engineering and Materials Science and current NIOC chair in petroleum engineering at USC\nDjavad Salehi-Isfahani, professor of economics at Virginia Tech, and visiting fellow at the Middle East Youth Initiative at the Wolfensohn Center for Development at the Brookings Institution. His expertise is on demographic & energy economics and the economics of Iran & the larger Middle East\nDavid B. Samadi, vice Chairman of the Department of Urology and Chief of Robotics and Minimally Invasive Surgery at the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai\nEliz Sanasarian, professor of political science at the University of Southern California. Specialist ethnic politics and feminism, particularly regarding the Middle East and Iran\nKamal Sarabandi, Professor of Engineering at the University of Michigan\nHomayoun Seraji, Senior Research Scientist at NASA\'s Jet Propulsion Laboratory and Caltech, former professor at Sharif University of Technology. Works in the field of robotics and space exploration.\nCyrus Shahabi, chair of the Computer Science Department, University of Southern California\nMohammad Shahidehpour, Carl Bodine Distinguished Professor and chairman in the Electrical and Computer Engineering Department at Illinois Institute of Technology\nGhavam Shahidi, electrical engineer and IBM Fellow, Director of Silicon Technology at IBM\'s Watson\'s Laboratory\nAlireza Shapour Shahbazi, lecturer in Achaemenid archeology and Iranology at Harvard University, full professor of history in Eastern Oregon University\nManuchehr Shahrokhi, professor of Global Business-Finance at California State University; Founding Editor of Global Finance Journal; executive director of Global Finance Association\nFatemeh Shams, contemporary Persian poet, and Assistant Professor of Persian literature at the University of Pennsylvania\nShahrokh Shariat, urologist; professor & chairman of the Department of Urology of the Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; adjunct professor of urology & medical oncology at Weill Cornell Medical Center & at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center.\nNasser Sharify, Distinguished Professor and Dean Emeritus of the School of Information and Library Science at Pratt Institute\nSiamack A. Shirazi, scientist, professor and graduate coordinator of the Mechanical Engineering department at the University of Tulsa.\nHamid Shirvani, architecture scholar, former president of Briar Cliff University, former chancellor of North Dakota University System.\nRahmat Shoureshi, former President of Portland State University; former president, Provost & professor at New York Institute of Technology\nSam Sofer, scientist who specializes in biological processes and bioreactor design.\nSaba Soomekh, professor of religious studies, women\'s studies, and Middle Eastern history at UCLA and Loyola Marymount University. Author of books and articles on contemporary and historical Iranian Jewish culture\nShahrbanou Tadjbakhsh, university lecturer at Sciences Po, researcher, and United Nations consultant in peacekeeping, conflict resolution, counter-terrorism and radicalization. Best known for her work in "Human Security"\nKian Tajbakhsh, social scientist, urban planner, and professor of Urban Planning at Columbia University. One of the four Iranian-Americans falsely convicted and detained by the Iranian government in May 2007\nRay Takeyh, Middle East scholar and Senior Fellow at the Council on Foreign Relations\nKamran Talattof, Persian literature and Iranian culture; Director of Persian Program University of Arizona\nVahid Tarokh, professor of electrical and computer engineering, Bass Connections Professor, a professor of mathematics (secondary), and computer science (secondary) at Duke University\nNader Tehrani, designer, Dean of the Irwin S. Chanin School of Architecture at Cooper Union, and former professor of architecture and department chair at the MIT School of Architecture and Planning.\nCumrun Vafa, string theorist and Donner Professor of Science at Harvard University. Recipient of the 2008 Dirac Medal and the 2016 Breakthrough Prize in Fundamental Physics.\nSaba Valadkhan, biomedical scientist, Assistant professor and RNA researcher at Case Western Reserve University, recipient of Young Scientist Award in 2005 for the mechanism of spliceosomes\nRoxanne Varzi, associate professor of anthropology and film and media studies at the University of California, Irvine, documentary filmmaker, and writer\nEhsan Yarshater, founder and Editor in Chief of Encyclopaedia Iranica, first full-time professor at a U.S. university since World War II; Hagop Kevorkian Professor Emeritus of Iranian Studies; Director of the Center for Iranian Studies, Columbia University;\nSeema Yasmin, Director of the Stanford Health Communication Initiative at Stanford University\nMohammad Yeganeh, economist, former Governor of the Central Bank of Iran (1973–1975), a professor of economics at Columbia University (1980–1985)\nHouman Younessi, researcher and educator in informatics, computer science, and molecular biology. Former research professor at the University of Connecticut;\nLotfi A. Zadeh, mathematician, computer scientist, and a professor emeritus of computer science at the University of California, Berkeley; father of fuzzy logic and fuzzy sets\nNorm Zada, former adjunct mathematics professor,  and founder of Perfect 10; son of Lotfi A. Zadeh\nReza Zadeh, computer scientist at Stanford University\nIraj Zandi, Emeritus Professor of Systems, University of Pennsylvania\nMark Zandi, chief economist of Moody\'s Analytics,\nEdip Yüksel, Islamic philosopher and intellectual, considered one of the prime figures in the modern Islamic reform and Quranism movements.\nJohn Shahidi, software developer and manager, brother of Sam\nSam Shahidi, software developer and manager, brother of John\nArif Dirlik\nDaron Acemoglu, economist, of Armenian descent\nTaner Akçam, University of Minnesota professor, historian specializing in the Armenian genocide\nİlhan Aksay, professor, Princeton University\nÖzalp Babaoğlu, professor of computer science at University of Bologna\nCiğdem Balım\nAsım Orhan Barut, University of Colorado-Boulder physicist\nMine Çetinkaya-Rundel, associate professor of the practice in statistics at Duke University\nFaruk Gül, professor of economics, Princeton University\nFeza Gürsey, mathematician and physicist\nM. Şükrü Hanioğlu, Professor of Near Eastern Studies, Princeton University\nAlp Ikizler, nephrologist, holder of the Catherine McLaughlin Hakim chair in Medicine at Vanderbilt University School of Medicine\nMerve Kavakçı, George Washington University Professor and former Fazilet Party Parliamentarian exiled from Turkey for violating the Public Head Scarf Ban\nHasan Özbekhan\nMehmet Toner, cryobiologist, professor of surgery at the Harvard Medical School, and professor of biomedical engineering at the Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology\nTurgay Üzer, Georgia Institute of Technology Physicist\nVamık Volkan, Princeton University Emeritus Professor of Psychiatry\nNur Yalman, octolingual Harvard University Professor of Social Anthropology and Middle Eastern Studies\nOsman Yaşar, professor and chair of the computational science department at State University of New York College at Brockport\nK. Aslıhan Yener, University of Chicago archaeologist who uncovered a new source of Bronze Age Anatolian tin mines\n\nBusiness\nThe most famous ones include\nMohamed Atalla, engineer, inventor of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), most frequently manufactured device in history. Pioneer in silicon semiconductors and security systems, founder of Atalla Corporation\n Bob Miner, co-founder of Oracle Corporation and the producer of its relational database management system\n Hamid Akhavan, CEO of Siemens Enterprise Communications\n Melih Abdulhayoğlu, founder, CEO, and president of Comodo Group\n Joseph Lubin (entrepreneur), Canadian-American founder of blockchain software technology company ConsenSys, co-founder of Ethereum\n Sina Tamaddon, Senior Vice President of Applications for Apple Computer\nSam Gores, founder of talent agency Paradigm Agency; on the Forbes list of billionaires (LebanesePalestinian)\nNajeeb Halaby, former head of Federal Aviation Administration and CEO of Pan-American Airlines, and father of Queen Noor of Jordan (Lebanese-Syrian father)\nMario Kassar, formerly headed Carolco Pictures (Lebanese)\nJohn J. Mack, CEO of investment bank Morgan Stanley (Lebanese parents)\n\nLiterature\nKhalil Gibran, writer, poet, and member of the New York Pen League; the third-best-selling poet of all time (Lebanese)\nWilliam Peter Blatty, American writer best known for his 1971 horror novel The Exorcist (Lebanese)\nLaila Lalami, Pulitzer Prize-nominated novelist, journalist, essayist, and professor (Moroccan) \nMikhail Naimy, Nobel Prize-nominated author; member of the New York Pen League; well-known works include The Book of Mirdad (Lebanese)\nEdward Said, literary theorist, thinker, and the founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies (Palestinian)\nAmeen Rihani, "father of Arab American literature," member of the New York Pen League and author of The Book of Khalid, the first Arab American novel in English; also an ambassador\nMona Simpson, author of Anywhere but Here (Syrian father)\nStephen Adly Guirgis, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright (Egyptian father)\nElmaz Abinader, poet, playwright, memoirist, writer (Lebanese)\nDiana Abu-Jaber, novelist and professor, author of Arabian Jazz and Crescent (Jordanian)\nElia Abu Madi, poet, publisher and member of the New York Pen League (Lebanese)\nEtel Adnan, poet, essayist, and visual artist (Syrian father)\nCatherine Filloux, French-Algerian-American playwright\nSuheir Hammad, poet, playwright, artist, Tony Award winner, 2003 (Russel Simmons Presents Def Poetry Jam on Broadway)\nSamuel John Hazo, State Poet of Pennsylvania\nLawrence Joseph, poet\nLisa Suhair Majaj, poet and literary scholar\nJack Marshall, poet and author (Iraqi father/Syrian mother)\nKhaled Mattawa, poet, recipient of an Academy of American Poets award\nClaire Messud, author, Algerian\nNaomi Shihab Nye, poet\nAbraham Rihbany, writer on politics and religion\n Steven Salaita, expert on comparative literature and post-colonialism, writer, activist (Palestinian/Jordanian)\n Colet Abedi, young adult novelist and television producer\n Salar Abdoh, novelist and essayist. Current director of the graduate program in creative writing at the City College of New York.\n Kaveh Akbar, poet and scholar\n Laleh Bakhtiar, writer and scholar\n Fereydoon Batmanghelidj, writer of books on health and wellness. \n Najmieh Batmanglij, acclaimed chef and cookbook author\n William D. S. Daniel, Iranian-Assyrian author, poet, and musician\n Parvin Darabi, writer and women\'s rights activist. Best known for book Rage Against the Veil\n Jasmin Darznik, author of The Good Daughter: A Memoir of My Mother\'s Hidden Life and Song of a Captive Bird\n Firoozeh Dumas, author of Funny in Farsi: A Memoir of Growing Up Iranian in America\n FM-2030, author, teacher, transhumanist philosopher, futurist; author of Are You a Transhuman?: Monitoring and Stimulating Your Personal Rate of Growth in a Rapidly Changing World (1989)\n Sara Farizan, writer of young adult literature. Best known for novel, If You Could Be Mine (2013)\n Ezzat Goushegir, fiction writer & playwright\n Roya Hakakian, writer, poet, and journalist\n Hakob Karapents, novelist and short story writer whose works were written in both Armenian and English. Settled in the U.S. in 1947.\n Laleh Khadivi, novelist and documentary filmmaker\n Porochista Khakpour, novelist, essayist, and writer\n Tahereh Mafi, novelist of young adult fiction\n Mahtob Mahmoody, author of autobiographical memoir My Name is Mahtob and daughter of Betty Mahmoody, the author of Not Without My Daughter\n Faranak Margolese, writer, best known as author of Off the Derech\n Marsha Mehran, novelist, author of international bestsellers Pomegranate Soup (2005) and Rosewater and Soda Bread (2008)\n Shokooh Mirzadegi, novelist and poet, who worked for Ferdowsi magazine and Kayhān daily in the late 1960s in Iran. \n Azadeh Moaveni, author of Lipstick Jihad and co-author of Iran Awakening with Shirin Ebadi, and reporter for Time magazine on Iran and the Middle East\n Melody Moezzi, writer, attorney, and author of Haldol and Hyacinths: A Bipolar Life and War on Error: Real Stories of American Muslims.\n Ottessa Moshfegh, writer, author of Eileen\n Farnoosh Moshiri, novelist, playwright, and librettist. Professor of creative writing and literature at the University of Houston-Downtown\n Dora Levy Mossanen, author of historical fiction\n Azar Nafisi, writer, best known for Reading Lolita in Tehran: A Memoir in Books\n Gina Nahai, author of Cry of the Peacock, Moonlight on the Avenue of Faith, and Caspian Rain\n Steven Naifeh, Pulitzer Prize-winning biographer of Jackson Pollock and Vincent van Gogh, co-author of 18 other books with Gregory White Smith, businessman, and artist\n Dina Nayeri, novelist, essayist, and short story writer. Author of A Teaspoon of Earth and Sea and Refuge\n Abdi Nazemian, author and screenwriter. Best known for The Walk-In Closet\n Ghazal Omid, nonfiction political writer, nonfiction children\'s book writer, speaker, NGO executive\n Shahrnoosh Parsipour, writer\n Susan Atefat Peckham, poet\n Saïd Sayrafiezadeh, memoirist, playwright, and fiction writer\n Dalia Sofer, writer, best known for The Septembers of Shiraz\n Neda Soltani, writer of My Stolen Face and political exile\n Mahbod Seraji, writer, best known for Rooftops of Tehran\n Mahmoud Seraji, a.k.a. "M.S. Shahed," poet best known for his trilogy Mazamir Eshgh (مزامیر عشق). Father of Mahbod Seraji\n Solmaz Sharif, poet, known for her debut poetry collection, Look. Currently a Jones Lecturer at Stanford University\n\n Andrew David Urshan, evangelist and author. Known as the "Persian Evangelist", ks\n Sholeh Wolpe, poet, editor and literary translator\n Walter Abish, novelist, poet, and short story writer\n Herman Wouk, novelist and non-fiction writer\n Anzia Yezierska, novelist\n Leonard S. Zinberg (Ed Lacy), novelist\n\nPolitics\n Mark Esper, 27th Secretary of Defense (2019—2020) (Lebanese)\n Alex Azar, Secretary of Human Health and Service (2018—2021) (Lebanese)\n William Barr, Attorney General (2019—2021)\n Steven Mnuchin, 77th secretary of Treasury (2017—2021)\nJames Abdnor, U.S. Senator (R-South Dakota) (1981–1987)\nJohn Abizaid, retired general (Lebanese) \nJames Abourezk, U.S. Senator (D-South Dakota) (1973–1979) (Lebanese ancestry)\nSpencer Abraham, U.S. Secretary of Energy (2001–2005) and U.S. Senator (R-Mich.) Secretary of Energy under Bush (1995–2001) (Lebanese ancestry)\nJustin Amash, U.S. Representative (R-Michigan) (2011–2021), Palestinian and Syrian descent\nVictor G. Atiyeh, Governor of Oregon (R) (1979–1987) (Syrian)\nJohn Baldacci, Governor of Maine (D) (2003–2011) (Lebanese mother)\nRosemary Barkett, U.S. federal judge and the first woman Supreme Court Justice and Chief Justice for the state of Florida (Syrian)\nCharles Boustany, U.S. Representative from Louisiana; cousin of Victoria Reggie Kennedy (Lebanese)\nPat Danner, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Mo.) (1993–2001)\nBrigitte Gabriel, pro-Israel activist and founder of the American Congress For Truth (Lebanese)\nPhilip Charles Habib, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs and Special Envoy to Ronald Reagan (Lebanese)\nLisa Halaby (a.k.a. Queen Noor), Queen-consort of Jordan and wife of King Hussein of Jordan (father is of Syrian descent)\nDarrell Issa, U.S. Congressman (R-California) (2001–) (Lebanese father)\nJoe Jamail, Renown American trial lawyer and billionaire, also known as the "King of Torts"  (Lebanese)\nJames Jabara, colonel and Korean War flying ace (Lebanese)\nChris John, U.S. Congressman (D-Louisiana) (1997–2005) (Lebanese ancestry)\nGeorge Joulwan, retired general, former NATO commander-in-chief (Lebanese)\nGeorge Kasem, U.S. Congressman (D-California) (1959-1961)\nAbraham Kazen, U.S. Congressman (D-Texas) (1967–1985) (Lebanese ancestry)\nJill Kelley, global advocate and American socialite (Lebanese)\nVictoria Reggie Kennedy, attorney and widow of late Senator Ted Kennedy (Lebanese)\nMuna Khalif, fashion designer and MP in the Federal Parliament of Somalia (Somali)\nJohnny Khamis, Councilmember from San Jose (Lebanese)\nRay LaHood, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (1995–2009), U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2009–2013) (Lebanese and Jordanian ancestry)\nDarin LaHood, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (2015–), son of Ray Lahood\nGeorge J. Mitchell, U.S. Senator (D-Maine) (1980–1995) United States of America special envoy to the Middle East under the Obama administration, U.S. senator from Maine, Senate Majority Leader (Lebanese mother)\nMohamed Abdullahi Mohamed, President of Somaila (2017-) former Prime Minister of Somalia (Somali descent)\nRalph Nader, politician and consumer advocate, author, lecturer, and attorney, candidate for US Presidency \nJimmy Naifeh, Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives (D) (Lebanese ancestry)\nMary Rose Oakar, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Ohio) (1977–1993)\nAbdisalam Omer, Foreign Minister of Somalia (Somali descent)\nIlhan Omar,  U.S. Congresswoman (D-Minnesota) (2019-), DFL Party member of the Minnesota House of Representatives (Somali/Yemeni) \nJeanine Pirro, former Westchester County District Attorney and New York Republican attorney general candidate (Lebanese parents)\nDina Powell, U.S. Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategy (2017-2018) (Egyptian)\nNick Rahall, U.S. Congressman (D-West Virginia) (1977–2015) (Lebanese ancestry)\nSelwa Roosevelt (Lebanese), former Chief of Protocol of the United States and wife of the late Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr., grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt\n Zainab Salbi, co-founder and president of Women for Women International (Iraqi)\nDonna Shalala, U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (1993–2001) (Lebanese parents)\nChris Sununu, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (2017–), son of Governor John H. Sununu\nJohn E. Sununu, U.S. Senator (R-New Hampshire) (2003–2009) (father is of Lebanese and Palestinian ancestry)\nJohn H. Sununu, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (1983–1989) and Chief of Staff to George H.W. Bush (Lebanese and Palestinian ancestry)\nJames Zogby (Lebanese), founder and president of the Arab American Institute\nHady Amr, Deputy Assistant Secretary for Israeli-Palestinian Affairs and Press and Public Diplomacy (2021-), founding director of Brookings Doha Center (Lebanese father)\n Parry Aftab, Internet privacy and security lawyer, considered one of the founders of cyberlaw. Founder of the cybersafety organizations WiredSafety, StopCyberbullying and the consulting firm, WiredTrust\n Roozbeh Aliabadi, advisor and commentator on geopolitical risk and geoeconomics. Current partner at global affair practice at GGA in New York City, former Senior Advisor to the Department of Strategic Initiatives, Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Iran\n Mahnaz Afkhami, women\'s rights activist who served in the Cabinet of Iran from 1976 to 1978; executive director of the Washington-based Foundation for Iranian Studies, and the founder and president of the Women\'s Learning Partnership (WLP)\n Goli Ameri, former Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Values and Diplomacy for the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies, former U.S. Assistant Secretary of State for Educational and Cultural Affairs, former U.S. public delegate to the United Nations General Assembly, and former Republican candidate for the United States House of Representatives from the 1st district of Oregon.\n Cyrus Amir-Mokri, former Assistant Secretary of the Treasury for Financial Institutions at the U.S. Treasury Department\n Jamshid Amouzegar, economist and politician who served as Prime Minister of Iran (1977–1978). Immigrated to U.S. in 1978\n Hushang Ansary, former Iranian Minister of Economic Affairs and Finance, former Ambassador of Iran to the United States (1967–1969) and Chairman of National Finance Committee of Bush-Cheney 2004 campaign.\n Gholam Reza Azhari, military leader and Prime Minister of Iran (1978–1979). Immigrated to the U.S. in 1979\n Pantea Beigi, human rights advocate, known for her media appearances commenting on the human rights conditions in Iran in the wake of the 2009 Iranian presidential election protests. She has served as an AmeriCorps member for the PeaceJam foundation, notably working with Dr. Shirin Ebadi in her efforts to address social and economic injustices of the youth in Iran\n Michael Benjamin, 1996 Republican candidate for the U.S. House from the 8th district of New York, and 2004 United States Senate Republican Primary candidate from New York\n Makan Delrahim, United States Assistant Attorney General for the United States Department of Justice Antitrust Division under the Trump Administration\n Jimmy Delshad, former Mayor of Beverly Hills, California (2007–2008, 2010–2011),  first Iranian-born mayor of an American city\n Eugene Dooman, counselor at the United States Embassy in Tokyo during the period of critical negotiations between the U.S. and Japan before World War II\n Abdullah Entezam, Iranian diplomat, Iranian ambassador to France (1927) and to West Germany, secretary of the Iranian embassy in the United States. Father of Hume Horan\n Anna Eshoo, U.S. Representative of California\'s 18th congressional district\n Anna Eskamani, member of the Florida House of Representatives.\n Abbas Farzanegan, former governor of the state of Esfahan, communications minister and diplomat during Mohammad Reza Pahlavi\'s reign. Key figure in facilitation of the 1953 Iranian coup d\'état. Immigrated to the U.S. in 1975\n Shireen Ghorbani, at-large member of the Salt Lake County Council, representing 1.1 million residents\n Rostam Giv, 3rd representative of Iranian Zoroastrians in Iranian parliament, senator of the Iranian Senate, and philanthropist to the Zoroastrian community in Iran, then United States, and the world. Immigrated to the U.S. in 1978.\n Ferial Govashiri, served as the Personal Secretary to U.S. President Barack Obama at the White House (2014-2017). Currently is the Chief of Staff to the Chief Content Officer of Netflix\n Hrach Gregorian, political consultant, educator, and writer. His work has taken him internationally as a consultant on international conflict management, and post-conflict peacebuilding\n Cyrus Habib, 16th Lieutenant Governor of Washington, and President of the Washington State Senate. First and so far only Iranian-American elected to state office\n Kamal Habibollahi, last Commander of the Imperian Iranian Navy until the Iranian Revolution and the last CNO commander of the Pahlavi dynasty. Also held several minister positions under the military government of Gholam Reza Azhari in 1978. Immigrated to the U.S. after the Iranian Revolution\n Shamsi Hekmat, women\'s rights activist who pioneered reforms in women\'s status in Iran. Founded the first Iranian Jewish women\'s organization (Sazman Banovan Yahud i Iran) in 1947. After her migration to the U.S., she established the Iranian Jewish Women\'s Organization of Southern California s.\n Shahram Homayoun, political dissident of the government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and owner of "Channel One," a Persian satellite TV station based in Los Angeles that broadcasts into Iran daily\n Hume Horan, diplomat and former U.S. ambassador to Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Sudan, Saudi Arabia, and the Ivory Coast. Son of Abdullah Entezam\n Fereydoon Hoveyda, former Iranian ambassador to the United Nations (1971–1979). Since his exile to the U.S., senior fellow and member of the executive committee of the National Committee on American Foreign Policy (NCAFP)\n Shaban Jafari, Iranian political figure, practitioner of Pahlevani and zoorkhaneh rituals. Key figure in the facilitation of the 1953 Iranian coup d\'état. Exiled to the United States soon after the 1979 revolution\n Anna Kaplan (née Anna Monahemi), first Iranian-American elected to New York State Senate\n Zahra Karinshak, attorney and politician.\n Mehdi Khalaji, political analyst, writer, and scholar of Shia Islamic studies. Senior research fellow at the Washington Institute for Near East Policy, a D.C.-based foreign policy think tank. He has frequently contributed to journalistic outlets such as BBC, The Guardian, The Washington Post, and The New York Times\n Alan Khazei, social entrepreneur; founder and CEO of "Be The Change, Inc",  dedicated to building coalitions among non-profit organizations and citizen . Co-founder and former CEO of City Year, an AmeriCorps national service program\n Bijan Kian, businessman, member of the board of directors of the Export–Import Bank of the United States, partner of Michael Flynn in the Flynn Intel Group, and worked with the Trump administration transition team in regards to the Office of the Director of National Intelligence\n Paul Larudee, political activist and a major figure in the pro-Palestinian movement. He is involved in the International Solidarity Movement and the founder of the Free Gaza Movement and the Free Palestine Movement\n Ahmad Madani, former Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy (1979), governor of the Khuzestan province, and candidate of the first Iranian presidential election. After his exile to the United States in 1980, he was the chairman of the National Front outside of Iran.\n Cyrus Mehri, attorney and partner at Mehri & Skalet. Best known for helping establish the National Football League\'s (NFL) Rooney Rule\n Mariam Memarsadeghi, democracy and human rights advocate\n Ross Mirkarimi, former member of San Francisco City Council and former San Francisco Sheriff. Co-founder of the Green Party of California\n Mohammad Hassan Mirza II, last Crown Prince of Iran from the rule of the Qajar dynasty & heir apparent to the Qajar Sun Throne. Currently lives in Dallas, Texas.\n Shayan Modarres, civil right activist known for his representation of the family of Trayvon Martin, and a 2014 Democratic primary candidate for the U.S. House from the 10th district of Florida\n Esha Momeni, women\'s rights activist and a member of the One Million Signatures campaign\n David Nahai, environmental attorney, political activist, former head of the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power\n Adrin Nazarian, Member of the California State Assembly from the 46th district. First Iranian-American elected to the California State Legislature\n John J. Nimrod, minority rights activist and Illinois state senator of District 4 (1973-1983) of Iranian-Assyrian descent; notable for his promotion of Assyrian causes and for the rights of other under-represented minority groups throughout the world, such as Uyghurs and Tibetans\n Alex Nowrasteh, immigration policy analyst currently at the Center for Global Liberty and Prosperity at the Cato Institute, and previously at the Competitive Enterprise Institute. He is a national expert on immigration policy\n Vali Nasr, Shia scholar and poetical scientist. Senior Fellow in foreign policy at the Brookings Institution\n Prince Abdul Reza Pahlavi, son of Reza Shah and half-brother of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Immigrated to the U.S. with other relatives immediately prior to the Islamic revolution of 1979\n Prince Ali-Reza Pahlavi, younger son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. He was second in the order of succession to the Iranian throne prior to the Iranian revolution. \n Princess Ashraf Pahlavi, twin sister of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Considered to be the "power behind her brother" and instrumental in the 1953 coup d\'état which led him taking the throne. Served her brother as a Palace advisor and a strong advocate for women\'s rights.\n Farah Pahlavi, widow of Mohammad Reza Shah and former shahbanu (empress) of Iran\n Princess Farahnaz Pahlavi, eldest daughter of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. Currently resides in New York City\n Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran, last heir apparent of the Imperial State of Iran and current head of the exiled House of Pahlavi. Oldest son of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi and Farah Pahlavi. Founder and former leader of the National Council of Iran. Currently resides in Bethesda, Maryland. \n Shams Pahlavi, elder sister of Mohammad Reza Pahlavi. Former president of the Red Lion and Sun Society. Exiled to the United States after the 1979 revolution\n Yasmine Pahlavi, lawyer and wife of Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran. Co-founder and former director of the Foundation for the Children of Iran. Currently resides in Bethesda, Maryland\n Mehrdad Pahlbod, Iranian royal and first culture minister of Iran (1964-1968). He was the second husband of Princess Shams Pahlavi. Immigrated to the U.S. and resided in Los Angeles after the 1979 revolution\n Trita Parsi, founder and current president of the National Iranian American Council. He regularly writes articles and appears on TV to comment on foreign policy\n Noraladin Pirmoazzen, Iranian politician who served as a member of the 6th and 7th Islamic Consultative Assembly from the electorate of Ardabil, Nir, Namin and Sareyn.  Immigrated to the U.S. in 2008.\n Azita Raji, former United States Ambassador to Sweden appointed by Barack Obama\n Farajollah Rasaei, Commander of the Imperial Iranian Navy (1961-1972), the most Senior Naval Commander of the Iranian Navy. Exiled to the U.S. after the 1979 revolution\n Parviz Sabeti, former SAVAK deputy under the regime of Mohammad Reza Shah. One of the most powerful men in the last two decades of the Pahlavi regime. Exiled to the U.S. in 1979.\n Ahsha Safaí, elected member of the San Francisco Board of Supervisors representing Supervisorial District 11\n David Safavian, disgraced former Chief of Staff of the United States General Services Administration\n Karim Sanjabi, Iranian politician of the National Front of Iran. Settled in the U.S. after the 1979 revolution\n Hajj Sayyah, famous world traveler and political activist. He is the first Iranian to obtain an American citizenship. Played a major role in the Constitutional Revolution of 1906 in Persia.\n Mohsen Sazegara, pro-democracy political activist and journalist. He held several offices in the government of Mir-Hossein Mousavi. His reformist policies clashed with the Supreme Leader Ali Khamenei, eventually resulting in his arrest and later exile. He currently resides in the U.S.\n Farhad Sepahbody, former Ambassador of Iran to Morocco (1976-1979). Exiled to the U.S. after the Iranian Revolution\n Soraya Serajeddini, Iranian-Kurdish human rights activist. Former Executive Vice President of the Kurdish National Congress of North America. \n Mehdi Shahbazi, political activist and businessman. He was known for protest against major oil companies at the grounds of his Shell Oil gas station franchises\n Azadeh N. Shahshahani, human rights attorney\n Ali Shakeri, activist and businessman. Serves on the Community Advisory Board of the Center for Citizen Peacebuilding at the University of California, Irvine, and is the founder and active member of Ettehade Jomhourikhahan-e Iran (EJI), which advocates for a democratic and secular republic in Iran. He was one of the four Iranian-Americans detained by the Iranian government in May 2007.\n Jafar Sharif-Emami, former prime minister of Iran (1960-1961, 1978–1979), former president of the Iranian Senate (1964-1978), and former Minister of Foreign Affairs of Iran (1960). Exiled to the U.S. in the wake of the Iranian Revolution\n Faryar Shirzad, former Deputy National Security Advisor and White House Deputy Assistant for International Economic Affairs to President George W. Bush\n Yasmine Taeb, human rights attorney and Democratic National Committee official. She is a senior policy counsel at the Center for Victims of Torture\n Ramin Toloui, Assistant Secretary for International Finance, United States Department of the Treasury\n Bob Yousefian, former mayor of Glendale, California\n Steven Derounian, Republican, New York (1953–1965)\n Adam Benjamin, Jr., Democrat, Indiana (1977–1982)\n Chip Pashayan, Republican, California (1979–1991)\n Anna Eshoo, Democrat, California (1993—2013)\n John E. Sweeney, Republican, New York (1999–2007)\n Jackie Speier, Democrat, California (2008—)\n Anthony Brindisi, Democrat, New York (2019—2021)\nRobert Mardian, United States Assistant Attorney General (1970–1972)\nGeorge Deukmejian, Republican, California (1983–1991)\nGeorge Deukmejian, California Attorney General (1979–1983)\nJulia Tashjian, Secretary of the State of Connecticut (1983–1991)\nDickran Tevrizian, United States District Court for the Central District of California (1985–2005)\n Marvin R. Baxter, Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of California (1991—2015)\n Brad Avakian, Commissioner of the Oregon Bureau of Labor and Industries (2008—2019)\nRachel Kaprielian, Massachusetts Registrar of Motor Vehicles (2008–2014); Massachusetts Secretary of Labor and Worforce Development\n George Deukmejian, 35th Governor of California, 27th Attorney General of California, Member of the California State Senate (1967-1979) and State Assembly (1963-1967)\n Joe Simitian, Member of the Santa Clara County Board of Supervisors (2013-)\n\nSee also\n Middle East\n Greater Middle East\n Anti-Middle Eastern sentiment\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nMaghbouleh, Neda (2017). The Limits of Whiteness: Iranian Americans and the Everyday Politics of Race. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.\n\n \n \nMiddle Eastern people\nMiddle Eastern diaspora\nEthnic groups in the United States'}]

def term_frequency2(term:str, document: str):
    return  document.count(term)


def tf_idf_vector0(terms, doc):
    return np.array([term_frequency2(term, doc['text']) * inverse_document_frequency(term) for term in terms])

inverse_document_frequency("Northeastern"), inverse_document_frequency("computer"), inverse_document_frequency("science")

(0.014067257211435489, 2.5191766143169554, 2.0447186347218396)

term_frequency2("Northeastern", "Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department")

1

tf_idf_vector0("Northeastern computer science".split(), { "text": "Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department. It has a computer science department." })

array([0.01406726, 5.03835323, 4.08943727])

tf_idf_vector0("Northeastern computer science".split(), { "text": "Northeastern Northeastern Northeastern Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department. It has a computer science department." })

array([0.05626903, 5.03835323, 4.08943727])

def tf_idf_vector(terms, doc):
    vec =  np.array([term_frequency2(term, doc['text']) * inverse_document_frequency(term) for term in terms])
    normalized_vec = vec / np.linalg.norm(vec)
    return normalized_vec

tf_idf_vector("Northeastern computer science".split(), { "text": "Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department. It has a computer science department." })

array([0.00216782, 0.77643071, 0.6301989 ])

v1 = tf_idf_vector("Northeastern computer science".split(), { "text": "Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department. It has a computer science department." })
v2 = tf_idf_vector("Northeastern computer science".split(), { "text": "Northeastern Northeastern Northeastern Northeastern University is a university in Boston, Massachusetts, USA. It has a computer science department. It has a computer science department." })
v1, v2

(array([0.00216782, 0.77643071, 0.6301989 ]),
 array([0.00867098, 0.77640334, 0.63017669]))

def rank_by_tf_idf(query: str, n: int) -> list:
    terms = query.split()
    query_vec = tf_idf_vector(terms, { "text": query })
    ranked_docs = sorted(
        nuwiki,
        key=lambda doc: tf_idf_vector(terms, doc).dot(query_vec)  ,
        reverse=True
    )
    return ranked_docs[:n]

rank_by_tf_idf("Northeastern computer science Khoury", 10)

[{'id': '27792666',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khoury%20College%20of%20Computer%20Sciences',
  'title': 'Khoury College of Computer Sciences',
  'text': 'The Khoury College of Computer Sciences is the computer science school of Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. It was the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science when it was founded in 1982.  It addition to computer science, it specializes in data science and cybersecurity. The college was also among the first to offer an information assurance degree program. \n\nKhoury College offers Bachelor of Science (B.S.), Bachelor of Arts (B.A.), Master of Science (M.S.) and doctoral degrees in computer science, as well as undergraduate and graduate degrees in interdisciplinary, computer-related fields. Some 1,000 master\'s and 133 doctoral candidates are enrolled in the college.\n\nHistory\n\nThroughout the 1980s, Northeastern University made about 38 program and curriculum changes to improve the university. Between 1979 and 1981, Northeastern organized a blue-ribbon panel of educators and experts, including industry leaders from Bell Labs, University of California, Berkeley, Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and the Digital Equipment Corporation, to develop a plan to advance education and research in the emerging field of computer science. In 1982, Northeastern formally established the College of Computer Science (CCS), the first U.S. college devoted to computer science and the first new college at Northeastern in 17 years. Paul Kalaghan, director of Academic Computer Services, was named its first dean. The college was initially housed in Knowles-Volpe Hall, now known as the Asa S. Knowles Center, with 11 faculty members and 239 first-year students. Graduate degree programs were added in 1984. A year later, the college moved into the former Botolph Building, one of the oldest structures on campus, which reopened as the David and Margaret Fitzgerald Cullinane Hall. At the end of 1987, the CCS proposed the Law of Demeter, which was widely used in software development area. In 2004, the college moved into the newly constructed West Village H building, which consists of a six-story building and a 16-story tower containing the Khoury College of Computer Science and on-campus housing for 485 students.\n\nNaming donation\n\nOn December 16, 2018, Northeastern University announced a $50 million gift from alumnus and board trustee, Amin Khoury, in order to "support all aspects of the college\'s future focus." In return, the College of Computer and Information Science was renamed the Khoury College of Computer Sciences.\n\nNortheastern Deans of Computer Science\n\n Paul Kalaghan, 1982-1988\n Alan Selman (acting), 1988-1990\n Cynthia Brown, 1990-1994\n Larry Finkelstein, 1994-2014\n Carla Brodley, 2014-2021\n Alan Mislove (interim), 2021-2022\n Elizabeth Mynatt, 2022 - present\n\nAcademic programs\nIn addition to a traditional computer science curriculum, Khoury College offers numerous other information science programs at both the undergraduate and graduate levels.\n\nComputer science\n\nThe computer science program at Khoury College focuses on the fundamentals of computer program design, software design, computer networking, computation theory, and other technical computer-related subjects.\n\nUndergraduate degrees\n\nThe CS program offers both Bachelor of Science and Bachelor of Arts degrees. While both require a core curriculum of computer science, mathematics, science, and humanities coursework, the B.A. candidates are required to take more humanities coursework than B.S. candidates. The B.S. is thus the more technical of the two degrees, with the B.A. aimed at giving students a social science context with which to frame their understanding of computer science. Khoury College offers the following degrees:\n\nB.S. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Cybersecurity\nB.A. in Computer Science\nB.S. in Information Science\nB.S. in Data Science\n\nCombined majors\n\nKhoury College offers multiple combined major degree options within its own programs:\n\n B.S. in Computer Science and Information Science\n B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science\n\nThe combined B.S. and M.S. in Computer Science substitutes four master-level courses for their undergraduate equivalents. Students then have only to take four master-level electives to complete the program. This allows a student to graduate with both degrees on either a five-year track, or a six-year track with an additional co-op experience.\n\nIn addition, the College partners with other colleges at Northeastern to offer several joint degrees, such as combining Computer Science with Journalism, Game Design or Interactive Media.\n\nInformation science\n\nInformation science—the interdisciplinary study of how humans use information technology—combines a technical understanding of computer science and system design with the behavior context of the social sciences. Coursework covers the fields of information architecture, information system design and development, programming design, database design, and social informatics, among others. A two-semester senior capstone project, designed to integrate the many skill sets developed in the program, is required. Currently, only the B.S. of Information Science is offered, though it may be offered in conjunction with another degree.\n\nGraduate degrees\n\nKhoury College offers both Master of Science and doctoral degrees. In 2018, Khoury College\'s graduate program in computer science was ranked 49th in the list of the "Best Computer Science Graduate Schools." The publication also ranked the graduate program 12th on its list of "Best Programming Language Programs."\n\nMaster\'s degrees\n\nKhoury College offers the following master\'s degrees:\n\n MS in Computer Science \n Align MS in Computer Science (for people who did not study computer science as undergrads)\n MS in Cybersecurity\n MS in Data Science\n MS in Artificial Intelligence\n MS in Robotics\n MS in Health Informatics\n MS in Health Data Analytics\n MS in Game Science and Design\n\nCandidates for the MS in Computer Science can choose from the following concentrations:\n\nArtificial intelligence\nHuman–computer interaction\nDatabase management\nGraphics\nInformation security\nNetworks\nProgramming languages\nSoftware engineering\nSystems\nTheory\n\nKhoury College began offering the M.S. in Information Assurance (now the MS in Cybersecurity) in 2006, for which it has gained recognition by the National Security Agency as both a National Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Education and Center of Academic Excellence in Information Assurance Research. Masters candidates take coursework addressing the various technical, policy, and criminal justice-related issues involved in information assurance, preparing them for careers as corporate and government information executives. Full-time candidates for the M.S. in Cybersecurity typically finish the program in two years, with 32 semester hours required to earn the degree.\n\nPhD program\n\nThe PhD program prepares students for research careers in government, industry, or academia. Candidates are required to take coursework in computer systems, principles of programming languages, advanced algorithms, and computation theory. Electives in these and other subjects are also available. Candidates are given a maximum of five years to complete this coursework and their doctoral thesis. Khoury College offers four PhD programs:\n\n PhD in Computer Science\n PhD in Network Science\n PhD in Information Assurance\n PhD in Personal Health Informatics\n\nIn the 2011–2012 school year, the information assurance program began offering the Ph.D in Information Assurance, designed to be an interdisciplinary program with a focus on information assurance policy and research. Candidates for this doctoral degree take a core curriculum of computer networking, network security, hardware and software security, information security risk management, and information assurance policy. Elective coursework is then taken in one of three areas of concentration (or "tracks"), namely:\n\n Network/Communication Security\n System Security\n Policy/Society\n\nCandidates for the PhD in Information Assurance have a maximum of five years to complete their required coursework and doctoral thesis.\n\nThe PhD in Personal Health Informatics is an interdisciplinary Doctoral Program in Personal Health Informatics prepares researchers to design and evaluate technologies that improve health and wellness with the potential to transform healthcare. The joint degree program combines a strong curriculum in human-computer interface technology and experimental design in health sciences.\n\nStudent groups\nThe following student groups and organizations are part of the Khoury College community:\n\nAssociation for Computing Machinery (ACM)\nComputer Science Mentoring Organization (CoSMO)\nUndergraduate Experimental Systems Group (Crew), a volunteer student group supporting the Khoury IT systems staff\nUpsilon Pi Epsilon Honor Society (UPE)\nNortheastern University Women in Technology (NUWiT)\nNortheastern Game Development Club \nInformation Systems Security Association\nOut in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (oSTEM)\nNortheastern University DATA Club\n\nStudents of the college also participate in a variety of information security competitions, most notably the National Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition. The College\'s team won its regional qualifier, the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition ("NECCDC"), in 2009, and took first place at the national competition in 2010. Khoury College was host to the Northeast Collegiate Cyber Defense Competition in 2011.\n\nCooperative education within Khoury College\nStudents at Khoury College have the option of participating in Northeastern\'s Cooperative Education Program ("co-op program"). The co-op program allows students to take semester-long internships with public and private-sector organizations, exposing them to the real world application of the skills and knowledge taught in their academic major. Nearly two-thirds of Khoury College\'s graduating students are offered full-time positions by the companies for at which they worked a co-op.\n\nCompanies that participate in this program range from small startups to large enterprises including Google, Microsoft, John Hancock, and Amazon.com. The college has been able to achieve 100% placement in the past 7 years for all students who choose to go on 5-year co-op program.\n\nKey people\n Carla Brodley, Professor, Dean of Inclusive Computing, Northeastern University \nMatthias Felleisen, Trustee Professor \nWilliam Clinger , Associate Professor Emeritus \n David Lazer, Distinguished Professor \n Albert-László Barabási, Distinguished Professor \n Alessandro Vespignani, Distinguished Professor \n Renée Miller, Distinguished Professor \n Gene Cooperman, Professor, parallel computing and combination puzzle analysis\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences website\n Northeastern University website\n\nNortheastern University\nEducational institutions established in 1982\nUniversity subdivisions in Massachusetts\n1982 establishments in Massachusetts'},
 {'id': '2670485',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthias%20Felleisen',
  'title': 'Matthias Felleisen',
  'text': 'Matthias Felleisen is a German-American computer science professor and author. He grew up in Germany and immigrated to the US when he was 21 years old.\nHe received his PhD from Indiana University under the direction of  Daniel P. Friedman.\n\nAfter serving as professor for 14 years in the Computer Science Department of Rice University, Felleisen moved to the Khoury College of Computer Sciences at Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts. There he currently serves as a Trustee Professor. \n\nFelleisen\'s interests include programming languages, including software tools,  program design, the Design Recipe, software contracts, and many more. In the 1990s, Felleisen launched PLT and TeachScheme! (later ProgramByDesign and eventually giving rise to the Bootstrap project\n) with the goal of teaching program-design principles to beginners and to explore the use of Scheme to produce large systems. As part of this effort, he authored  How to Design Programs (MIT Press, 2001) with Findler, Flatt, and Krishnamurthi.\n\nFor his dissertation Felleisen developed a novel form of operational semantics for higher-order functional languages with imperative extensions (state, control).  Part I of "Semantics Engineering with PLT Redex" ) is derived from his dissertation. Its most well-known application is for a proof of type safety, worked out with his PhD student Andrew Wright.\n\nControl delimiters, the basis of delimited continuations, were introduced by Felleisen in 1988. They have since been used in many domains, particularly in defining new control operators; see Queinnec for a survey.\n\nA-normal form (ANF), an intermediate representation of programs in functional compilers were introduced by Sabry and Felleisen in 1992 as a simpler alternative to continuation-passing style (CPS). An implementation in the CAML compiler demonstrated the useful its practical usefulness and popularized the idea \n\nWith Findler, Felleisen developed the notion of higher-order contracts. With such contracts, programmers can express assertions about the behavior of first-class functions, objects, classes and modules. Felleisen\'s work on gradual typing was a direct continuation of his work on these contracts; see below. \n\nIn support of the TeachScheme! project, Felleisen and his team of \nFindler, Flatt, and Krishnamurthi designed and implemented the Racket programming language., Racket (nee PLT Scheme). The idea was to create a programming language with which it would be easy to quickly build pedagogic languages for novice students---a programmable programming language Flatt remains the lead architect of the Racket effort to this day.\n\nThis Racket programming language has played a key role in the recent development of gradual typing. In 2006, Felleisen and his PhD student Sam Tobin-Hochstadt started the Typed Racket project with the goal of allowing developers to migrate code from an untyped programming language to the same syntax enriched with a sound type system The Typed Racket language was the first to fully implement and support the idea of "gradually typing" a code base and remains under active development.\n\nFelleisen gave the keynote addresses at the 2011 Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education, 2010 International Conference on Functional Programming, 2004 European Conference on Object-Oriented Programming and the 2001 Symposium on Principles of Programming Languages, and several other conferences and workshops on computer science.\n\nIn 2006, he was inducted as a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery.  In 2009, he received the Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award from the ACM. In 2010, he received the SIGCSE Award for Outstanding Contribution to Computer Science Education from the ACM.  In 2012, he received the ACM SIGPLAN Programming Languages Achievement Award for "significant and lasting contribution to the field of programming languages" including small-step operational semantics for control and state, mixin classes and mixin modules, a fully abstract semantics for Sequential PCF, web programming techniques, higher-order contracts with blame, and static typing for dynamic languages.\n\nBooks\nFelleisen is co-author of:\n\n Realm Of Racket (No Starch Press, 2013)\n Semantics Engineering with PLT Redex (MIT Press, 2010)\n How to Design Programs (MIT Press, 2001)\n A Little Java, A Few Patterns (MIT Press, 1998)\n The Little MLer (MIT Press, 1998)\n The Little Schemer (MIT Press, 4th Ed., 1996)\n The Seasoned Schemer (MIT Press, 1996)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Matthias at Northeastern University\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences at Northeastern University\n\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nLiving people\nAmerican instructional writers\nProgramming language researchers\nLisp (programming language) people\nNortheastern University faculty\nFellows of the Association for Computing Machinery\nRice University faculty\nIndiana University alumni\nComputer science educators'},
 {'id': '385997',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern%20University',
  'title': 'Northeastern University',
  'text': 'Northeastern University (NU or NEU) is a private research university with its main campus in Boston. Established in 1898, the university offers undergraduate and graduate programs on its main campus in Boston as well as satellite campuses in Charlotte, North Carolina; Seattle, Washington; San Jose, California; Oakland, California;  Portland, Maine; and Toronto and Vancouver in Canada. In 2019, Northeastern purchased the New College of the Humanities in London, England. The university\'s enrollment is approximately 19,000 undergraduate students and 8,600 graduate students. It is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". Northeastern faculty and alumni include Nobel Prize laureates, Rhodes, Truman, and Marshall scholars. Undergraduate admission to the university is categorized as "most selective."\n\nNortheastern features a cooperative education program, more commonly known as "co-op," that integrates classroom study with professional experience and includes over 3,100 partners across all seven continents. The program has been a key part of Northeastern\'s curriculum of experiential learning for more than a hundred years and is one of the largest co-op/internship programs in the world. While not required for all academic disciplines, participation is nearly universal among undergraduate students. Northeastern also has a comprehensive study abroad program that spans more than 170 universities and colleges.\n\nNortheastern is a large, highly residential university. Most undergraduate students choose to live on campus but third-years and above have the option to live off campus. Seventy-eight percent of Northeastern students receive some form of financial aid. In the 2020–21 school year, the university has committed $355\xa0million in grant and scholarship assistance. In 2019, Northeastern\'s six-year graduation rate was 89 percent.\n\nThe university\'s sports teams, the Northeastern Huskies, compete in NCAA Division I as members of the Colonial Athletic Association (CAA) in 18 varsity sports. The men\'s and women\'s hockey teams compete in Hockey East, while the men\'s and women\'s rowing teams compete in the Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges (EARC) and Eastern Association of Women\'s Rowing Colleges (EAWRC), respectively. Men\'s Track and Field has won the CAA back to back years in 2015 and 2016. In 2013, men\'s basketball won its first CAA regular season championship, men\'s soccer won the CAA title for the first time, and women\'s ice hockey won a record 16th Beanpot championship. The Northeastern men\'s hockey team won the 2018, 2019, and 2020 Beanpot, defeating Boston University, Boston College, and Harvard.\n\nHistory\n\nEarly development \n\nIn May 1896, directors of the Boston Young Men\'s Christian Association, the first in the U.S., established an Evening Institute for Younger Men, to merge, coordinate and improve its classes that had evolved over the past 40 years. Included among roughly 30 courses offered were algebra, bookkeeping, literature, French, German, Latin, geography, electricity, music, penmanship and physiology. In addition, a banjo club, camera club, orchestra, and weekly parliamentary debates and discussions were promoted. A good education for "any young man of moral character" with a YMCA membership was promised. Located in a new headquarters building at the corner of Boylston and Berkeley streets in Boston, the institute held its first classes in 1898. After a fire, a new YMCA building was constructed on Huntington Avenue in 1913.\n\nThe School of Law was also formally established in 1898 with the assistance of an advisory committee, consisting of James Barr Ames, dean of the Harvard Law School; Samuel Bennett, dean of the Boston University School of Law; and Judge James R. Dunbar. In 1903, the first Automobile Engineering School in the country was established, followed by a Polytechnic School in 1904 and a School of Commerce and Finance in 1907. Day classes began in 1909. In 1916, a bill was introduced into the Massachusetts Legislature to incorporate the institute as Northeastern College. After considerable debate and investigation, it was passed in March 1916.\n\nIn 1909, the Polytechnic School began offering co-operative engineering courses to eight students. A four-year daytime program had been established consisting of alternating single weeks of classroom instruction and practical work experience with mostly railroad companies that agreed to accept student workers. In 1920, the Co-operative School of Engineering, which later became the College of Engineering, was first authorized to grant degrees in civil, chemical, electrical and mechanical engineering. The cooperative program, the second of its kind in the U.S. after one in Cincinnati, Ohio, was eventually adopted by all departments.\n\nOn March 30, 1917, veteran educator Frank Palmer Speare, who had served as director of the institute, was inaugurated as the first president of the newly incorporated Northeastern College. Five years later the college changed its name to Northeastern University to better reflect the increasing depth of its instruction. In March 1923, the university secured general (A.B. and B.S.) degree-granting power from the Legislature, with the exception of the medical and dental degrees.\n\nThe College of Liberal Arts was added in 1935. Two years later the Northeastern University Corporation was established, with a board of trustees composed of 31 university members and 8 from the YMCA. Following World War II, Northeastern began admitting women. In 1948, Northeastern separated itself completely from the YMCA. By 1959, when Carl Ell who had expanded the university stepped down as president, Northeastern had a local identity as an independent technical university serving a commuter and adult population.\n\nThat reputation began changing during the presidency of Asa S. Knowles, from 1959 to 1975. Facing a postwar educational boom, the university broadened undergraduate offerings, increased graduate offerings, modernized administrative and faculty structures, created a Faculty Senate, launched its first-ever capital campaign, reorganized and expanded adult and continuing education, and increased the number of colleges. The university created the College of Education (1953), University College (1960), now called the College of Professional Studies, and the colleges of Pharmacy and Nursing (1964), which both later merged into the Bouvé College of Health Sciences. The creation of the College of Criminal Justice (1967) followed, and then the Khoury College of Computer Sciences (1982), the first college in the United States dedicated to the field of computer science.\n\nThe period between 1959 and 1975, is also often described generally as "The Age of Student Unrest" or "The Student Revolution," when campuses across the United States were rocked with dissension against institutional discrimination and the Vietnam War. Northeastern\'s student population not only grew considerably larger, but also more diverse during this time. At the beginning of this period, most of the student body was composed of white males from New England, the majority of whom came from the Boston-area public schools and primarily studied business or engineering. By 1974–75, women accounted for 33 percent of the nearly 14,000 undergraduates students, while 5 percent were black. Moreover, over 900 students came from different foreign countries. Of the graduating class of 2,238, 513 were in Liberal Arts, 462 in Engineering, 389 in Business, 227 in Pharmacy and Allied Health, and the remainder were roughly divided among Education, Boston-Bouvé, Nursing and Criminal Justice.\n\nTo attract more women, the university refurbished existing facilities, constructed new women\'s dormitories and encouraged their participation in all programs. The merger with Boston-Bouvé, a women\'s college dedicated to physical health, and the creation of the College of Nursing, traditionally a female profession, also contributed to the increase. Though there was an explicit nondiscrimination policy on the books, throughout its history Northeastern had only a handful of black students. In the early 1960s, with financial assistance from the Ford Foundation in New York in the form of scholarships and co-ops to black high school students, Northeastern began actively recruiting black students. By 1975, black student-led organizations included the Afro-photo Society, Student Grill, Health Careers Club, The Onyx (a black student newspaper), Muhindi Literary Guild, the Outing Club, Black Engineering Society, and the first recognized black fraternity at the university, the Omicron Chapter of Iota Phi Theta. In addition, the number of foreign students increased from 170 in the 1950s and 1960s to 960 by 1974–75.\n\nRecent history \n \nBy the early 1980s, under President Kenneth G. Ryder, the one-time night commuter school had grown into one of the largest private universities in the nation at around 50,000 students. In 1990, the first class with more live-on campus rather than commuter students was graduated. After Ryder\'s retirement in 1989, the university adopted a slow and more thoughtful approach to change. Following an economic downturn, a 1991 Trustee committee report described the situation as "life threatening to Northeastern," warning of a $17 million budget gap with no funding mechanisms to cover it. That year President John A. Curry formulated a new strategy of transforming Northeastern into a "smaller, leaner, better place to work and study," describing unacceptable compromises in the quality and reputation of the university that had been made in the quest for more students. Staff were terminated and admissions targets were reduced, with applicant numbers beginning to rise by the end of Curry\'s tenure.\n\nWhen Curry left office in 1996, the university population had been systematically reduced to about 25,000. Incoming President Richard M. Freeland decided to focus on recruiting the type of students who were already graduating as the school\'s prime demographic. Freeland focused on improving academics and restructuring the administration with a goal of "creating the country\'s premier program of practice oriented education". In the early 1990s, the university began a $485 million construction program that included residence halls, academic and research facilities, and athletic centers. During the university\'s transition, Freeland reorganized the co-operative education system, decentralizing it into a department based system to allow better integration of classroom learning with workplace experience. Full-time degree programs shifted from a four-quarter system to two traditional semesters and two summer "minimesters," allowing students to both delve more deeply into their academic courses and have longer and more substantive co-op placements, forcing departments to redesign aging programs to fit the longer format. Freeland also created a marketing department, uncommon for universities at the time, and expanded the university advancement office, while setting an ambitious $200 million fundraising target with the goal of reducing dependency on tuition.\n\nBetween 1995 and 2007, average SAT exam scores increased more than 200 points, retention rates rose dramatically, and applications doubled. In 1998, Freeland set an admissions target of 2,800 freshman per year, allowing for adequate tuition income without compromising on education. Throughout the transformation, his oft-repeated goal was to crack the top 100 of the U.S. News & World Report\'s rankings of America\'s best universities. With this accomplished by 2005, the transformation goal from commuting school to nationally recognized research university was complete. Freeland stepped down on August 15, 2006, and was followed by President Joseph E. Aoun, a former dean at the University of Southern California.\n\nAs part of a five-year, $75 million Academic Investment Plan that ran from 2004 to 2009, the university concentrated on undergraduate education, core graduate professional programs, and centers of research excellence. Faculty was originally to be bolstered by 100 new tenured and tenure-track professors, later expanded to include 300 additional tenure and tenure-track faculty in interdisciplinary fields. Aoun also placed more emphasis on improving community relations by reaching out to leaders of the neighborhoods surrounding the university. In addition, Aoun created more academic partnerships with other institutions in the Boston area, including Tufts University, Hebrew College and the School of the Museum of Fine Arts.\n\nDuring this period, Northeastern rapidly advanced in national rankings. It placed 42nd in the 2014–15 edition of U.S. News & World Reports best colleges and universities rankings, a 7 position jump from 2013–14 and a 27 place gain since 2010–11. Critics have argued that Northeastern\'s rise in the rankings shows that the university has "cracked the code" to academic rankings, while others suggested it figured out how to "game the system." The 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report ranked Northeastern 49th in its annual ranking of national universities. Whether or not the rise was an effort to reverse-engineer the controversial rankings formula, critics would likely agree that the positive feedback effect of its placement, in turn, allowed the institution to significantly increase its endowment, admit a more-competitive student body, hire new faculty, add to its campuses and expand its flagship co-op program.\n\nThe Empower Campaign was launched in May 2013 for student support, faculty advancement/expansion, innovation in education and research. Its goal was to raise $1 billion by 2017, with half of that being from philanthropic support and the other half from industry and government partnerships. The goal was raised to $1.25 billion in 2015. The campaign was inspired by Richard D\'Amore and Alan McKim\'s $60 million donation to the university\'s business school in 2012. In October 2017, Northeastern revealed that the final total of the Empower campaign was $1.4 billion. More than 100,000 individuals and over 3,800 organizations donated to Empower, from 110 countries.\n\nPresidents\nPresidents of Northeastern University:\n Frank Palmer Speare (1898–1940)\n Carl Stephens Ell (1940–1959)\n Asa S. Knowles (1959–1975)\n Kenneth G. Ryder (1975–1989)\n John A. Curry (1989–1996)\n Richard M. Freeland (1996–2006)\n Joseph E. Aoun (2006–present)\n\nUndergraduate admissions\n\nFor undergraduate students, Northeastern\'s 2020 acceptance rate was 18.1%. For the Class of 2024, Northeastern received 64,459 applications, with 13,199 students accepted. In 2018, the record number of applications led to a drop in acceptance rate, eight percentage points lower than the previous year. Additionally, Northeastern was one of the top ten most applied to colleges in 2018.\n\nFor the Class of 2022 (enrolling fall 2018), Northeastern received 62,272 applications, accepted 12,042 (19%), and enrolled 2,746. For the freshmen who enrolled, the middle 50% range of SAT scores was 670–750 for reading and writing, 690–790 for math, while the middle 50% range ACT composite range was 32–34.\n\nOf those who applied in 2016, 9,500 were international students, up from 1,128 international applicants in 2006. Of those who enrolled, 20% were international students. In the Power of International Education\'s 2017 Open Doors report, Northeastern was ranked as the fourth-highest institution in the United States to host international students.\n\nWhen it comes to both undergraduate and graduate students, the number of international students totals over 12,000 representing 138 different nations and over half of the student body. The number of international students at Northeastern has steadily increased by about 1,000 students every year since 2008.\n\nRankings\n\nIn the 2021 edition of U.S. News & World Report rankings, Northeastern was tied for 49th in the National Universities category.\n\nSpecialty rankings\n\n 1st in "Best Co-ops/Internships"  (U.S. News & World Report) (2020)\n 1st in "Best Schools for Internships" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)\n 1st in "Best Internships/Career Services" (Princeton Review) (2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2013, 2014, 2015)\n 2nd in "Best Graduate Psychology Programs" (2018)\n 2nd in "Best Physician Assistant Programs" (2018)\n 3rd in "Best Nursing-Anesthesia Programs" (2018)\n 3rd in "Best Career Services" (Princeton Review) (2016, 2017, 2018)\n 4th in "Top 25 Entrepreneurship: Ugrad" (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018) \n 4th in "Best Health Care Law Programs" (2018)\n 6th in "Most Innovative Schools" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018) (up from 7th in 2017)\n 7th in "The Top 25 B.A. Theatre Programs for 2018–19" (OnStage Blog)\n 9th in "Best Undergraduate International Business Programs" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 12th (tied) in "Freshman Retention Rate" – 97% (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 12th in "Best Graduate School Programs in Criminology" (2017)\n 14th in "Computer Science – Overall" (2020) (CSRankings)\n 14th in "Artificial Intelligence" (2020) (CSRankings)\n 19th in the nation for "Undergraduate Business Schools" (Bloomberg Businessweek) (2014)\n 23rd in Top 50 Game Design: Ugrad (Princeton Review) (2017, 2018)\n 30th in "Best Clinical Training Programs" (2018)\n 30th in "Best Speech-Language Pathology Programs" (2018)\n 31st in "Best Graduate Engineering Schools" (2021)\n 32nd in "Best Graduate Industrial / Manufacturing / Systems Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 32nd in "Best Online Graduate Computer Information Technology Programs"\n 33rd in "Best Graduate School Programs in Pharmacy" (2017, 2018)\n 33rd in "Lowest Acceptance Rate" (2018) (U.S. News & World Report)\n 37th in "Best Online Graduate Business Programs" (Excluding MBA) (2018)\n 38th in "Best Audiology Programs" (2018)\n 39th in "High School Counselor Rankings" (U.S. News & World Report) (2018)\n 40th in "Best Graduate Physical Therapy Programs" (2018)\n 42nd in "Best Online MBA Programs" (2018)\n 47th in "Best Graduate Sociology Programs" (2018)\n 49th in "Best Computer Science Graduate School Programs", with the Programming Language specialty ranked 12th (2018)\n 54th in "Best Business Graduate Schools"  (2018)\n 54th in "Best Graduate Environmental / Environmental Health Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 54th in "Best Graduate Materials Engineering Programs" (2018)\n 55th in "Best Graduate Mathematics Programs" (2018)\n 56th in "Best Graduate Physics Programs" (2018)\n 57th in "Best Nursing Graduate Schools" (2018)\n 59th in "Best Business Program" (2018)\n 60th in "Best Law Schools" (2018)\n 65th in "Best Nursing Graduate Schools" (2018)\n 65th in "Best Law Schools" (2018)\n 67th in "Best Graduate English Programs" (2018)\n 67th in "Best Value Schools" (2018)\n 77th in "Best Graduate Public Affairs Programs" (2018)\n\nAcademics\nNortheastern offers undergraduate majors in 65 departments. At the graduate level, there are about 125 programs. A Northeastern education is interdisciplinary and entrepreneurial. Founded in 2009, IDEA is Northeastern University\'s student-led Venture Accelerator, which provides entrepreneurs, including students, faculty, and alumni in the Northeastern community with the necessary support and educational experience towards developing a business from core concept to launch. Academics at Northeastern is grounded in a liberal arts education and the integration of classroom studies with experiential learning opportunities, including cooperative education, student research, service learning, and global experience, including study abroad and international co-op.\n\nThe university\'s cooperative education program places about 10,000 students annually in full-time, paid professional positions with more than 3,000 co-op employers in Boston and around the world. In 2014, College Prowler gave Northeastern an "A+" rating for the quality of classes, professors, and overall academic environment. Northeastern University is accredited by the New England Commission of Higher Education.\n\nColleges and schools\nColleges listed including schools and degrees offered:\n\n College of Arts, Media and Design (BA, BFA, BLA, BS, M.Arch., MA, M.Des., MFA, MS, Graduate Certificate)\n School of Architecture\n Department of Art + Design\n Department of Communication Studies\n Department of Media and Screen Studies\n Department of Music\n Department of Theatre\n Games at Northeastern\n School of Journalism\n D\'Amore-McKim School of Business (BSBA, BSIB, BS, MBA, MS, MSA, MSF, MSIB, MSIM, MST, Graduate Certificate)\n School of Technological Entrepreneurship\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences (BACS, BS, BSCS, BSIS, MS, MSCS, MSIA, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n College of Engineering (BS, BSBioE, BSCE, BSCHE, BSCompE, BSEE, BSIE, BSME, MS, MSBioE, MSCHE, MSCivE, MSCSE, MSECE, MSECEL, MSEM, MSENVE, MSIE, MSME, MSOR, MSSBS, MSTSM, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Department of Bioengineering\n Department of Chemical Engineering\n Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering\n Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering\n Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering\n Gordon Institute of Engineering Leadership\n Bouvé College of Health Sciences (AuD, BS, BSN, CAGS, DPN, DPT, MPH, MS, MSCP, PharmD, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Department of Applied Psychology\n Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders\n Department of Health Sciences\n Department of Physical Therapy, Movement and Rehabilitation Sciences\n The School of Nursing\n The School of Pharmacy\n College of Professional Studies (BS, BSET, DLP, DPT, EdD, MA, MAT, MEd, MPS, MS, MSLD, Graduate Certificate, Undergraduate Certificate)\n English Language Center\n School of Education\n Lowell Institute School\n School Health Institute\n World Languages Center\n College of Science (BA, BS, MS, MSOR, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Biochemistry Program\n Department of Biology\n Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology\n Department of Marine and Environmental Sciences\n Department of Mathematics\n Department of Physics\n Department of Psychology\n Linguistics at Northeastern\n College of Social Science and Humanities (BA, Bachelor of Science, MA, MPA, MS, MSCJ, PhD, Graduate Certificate)\n Asian Studies Program\n ASL Program\n Department of African-American Studies\n Department of Economics\n Department of English\n Department of History\n Department of Languages, Literatures, and Cultures\n Department of Philosophy and Religion\n Department of Political Science\n Department of Sociology and Anthropology\n Human Services Program\n International Affairs Program\n Jewish Studies Program\n School of Criminology and Criminal Justice\n School of Public Policy and Urban Affairs\n School of Law (MS, JD)\n\nHonors Program\nThe University Honors Program offers selected students an enhanced curriculum. These students are selected from the regular applicant pool with no separate application and represent the applicants with the highest GPA and SAT/ACT scores that year. The culminating experience is advanced specialty work in a major field through college-specific choices including specialized advanced honors seminars and an independent research project. In addition, students in the Honors Program exclusively can live in a Living-Learning Community housed in West Villages C and F. In Fall 2009, the university began housing first-year Honors students in the lower nine floors of the newly constructed International Village residence hall. Starting in Fall 2017, these students are housed in the lower floors of the even newer 17 story East Village residence hall. 2017 also marked the beginning of the Honors Discovery course and the introduction of the Student Assessed Integrated Learning (SAIL) app.\n\nCo-op/internship program\nLaunched in 1909, Northeastern has one of the largest and oldest cooperative education (co-op) programs in the world. In the co-op program, students alternate periods of academic study with periods of professional employment (usually paid) related to their major. Most majors offer a four-year graduation option with fewer co-op placements, but the five-year program is slightly more popular with students. Students on co-op do not pay tuition and students not living on campus do not pay room and board. The co-op program typically begins the spring of the second year or fall of the third year (after a more traditional program for the first semesters on campus). Students usually take anywhere between one and three with 96% participating in one and 78% participating in two or more.\n\nCo-op placements range from small start-up companies to large multinational companies, including many Fortune 500 corporations. The program also places students with government agencies, branches of government, nonprofits, and non-governmental organizations. Northeastern students can be found interning in the United States Congress, the White House, United Nations, and at NASA. Student placements usually last six months and most of the time, students are paid. Students may live in the university residence halls on campus during co-op employment, and the university currently leases housing for students co-oping in New York City, San Francisco, Seattle and Washington, D.C. and assists elsewhere.\n\nNortheastern co-op students staying in Boston usually benefit from the fact that the city\'s most prominent industries have numerous offices/headquarters there. Boston\'s most consequential industries such as its financial sector, technology sector, and medicine/life sciences sector tend to hire many co-ops in these fields especially to big-name companies. When it comes to D\'amore-Mckim Business students, many co-ops end up working for large financial firms such as State Street and John Hancock Financial. Accounting firms such as PricewaterhouseCoopers (PwC) and Deloitte & Touche as well as consulting firms such as Boston Consulting Group tend to hire many co-ops every cycle as well. Retail companies like TJX Companies and Staples tend to hire several marketing students every cycle.\n\nSome students also decide to develop their own co-ops if they wish to do something that is not offered. This usually involves starting a new company or reaching out to a company Northeastern does not have a partnership with and facilitating the creation of a co-op partnership. Many companies continually pass down their co-op opportunities to Northeastern students so these new partnerships are documented in Northeastern\'s co-op database, known as NUCareers, to be given to future Northeastern students. Students that decide to start their own companies are usually involved with IDEA, Northeastern\'s Venture Accelerator, and will sometimes spend their entire two or three co-ops solely developing their companies. They might also join the Husky Startup Challenge which also helps develop student-run companies. If a company is successful in either IDEA, the Husky Startup Challenge or both, they often to move onto MassChallenge in Boston which is a huge global non-profit startup accelerator and competition.\n\nAll Northeastern students take at least one class which prepares them for their co-op and the expectations of a given industry. Some schools, such as D\'Amore-McKim, have students take three different one-credit classes to prepare them for their co-op. During these classes, students work with advisers inside and outside of class to pursue potential co-ops as well as work on strategies to make themselves more competitive against other candidates.\n\nThe co-op program has led to the university\'s high reputation when it comes to job placement. 50% of Northeastern students receive a job offer from a previous co-op employer . 92% were either employed or enrolled in graduate school 9 months after graduation. This has also led Northeastern to consistently rank within the top 5 in the Princeton Review\'s list for "Best Career Services/Internships" within the last decade, mainly taking the top spot. The list split into "Best Career Services" and "Best Internships" in 2016 and Northeastern currently ranks 3rd for career services and 5th for internships in the United States.\n\nStudy abroad\nNortheastern has semester-long study abroad programs with placements in Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, and South America. Some participating schools include: University of Cambridge and London School of Economics, England; University of Edinburgh, Scotland; Reims Management School, France; European School of Business, Germany; University of Cape Town, South Africa; University of Auckland, New Zealand; Swinburne University of Technology, Australia; Obirin University, Japan; American College of Thessaloniki, Greece and Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Chile and also Antarctica.\n\nNortheastern\'s International Business program is a member of the International Partnership of Business Schools. Through this program International Business students have the opportunity to be awarded a dual-degree from Northeastern as well as from a sister school abroad.\n\nSince the arrival of President Aoun in 2006, the school has also been emphasizing co-op abroad, in an effort to make the school more global and internationally engaged. There are many programs being offered including social entrepreneurship in the Peru, Kenya, and South Africa.\n\n Dialogues of Civilizations \nNortheastern also has the notable Dialogues of Civilizations program, which features dozens of one-month-long programs (usually taking place in the summer) where a faculty member will teach a group of students in a region related to the curriculum of a specific class. A sort of "mini" study abroad, each program has an area of focus – for example, the Geneva program focuses on small arms and multilateral negotiations, while the South Africa program is based in non-governmental organizations, and the Seattle program focuses on design thinking. This program is meant to be a communicative experience and an exchange of ideas and cultures. It is open to all majors and all years, and is the most popular external study option at Northeastern.\n\nThe program is used by some Northeastern students to gain extra credits for a minor or concentration and can also be used by students trying to graduate in 4 years while also participating in one or more co-ops. The program will sometimes take place in multiple locations. Entrepreneurship and Global Consulting in Israel is a dialogue that starts in Boston and eventually has students go to Tel-Aviv and Beer Sheva, Israel. Some dialogues span multiple countries with one being taught in Marrakesh, Morocco, then in Amsterdam and concluding in Paris.\n\n N.U.in \nNortheastern also offers a program called "N.U.in" which has first-year students start their first semester studying abroad. This program accepts students into the university but has them spend their first semester studying at a foreign university partnered with Northeastern. Students take classes and these credits transfer over to Northeastern when they arrive on campus in the spring. The program began in 2007 with the creation of N.U.in Australia and only had the option for students to go abroad during their fall semester. An option for freshman to go abroad in their spring was later added called "N.U.in Spring" and later renamed "Global Quest". By 2012, 500 students enrolled in the N.U.in program which at the time offered the destinations of London, Dublin, Thessaloniki (Greece), Sydney, and San José (Costa Rica). By 2017 that number grew to 1,100 students and the program had expanded to Shanghai, Rome, Berlin, Montreal, Melbourne, and removed San José as an N.U.in destination.\n\nResearch\nResearch Centers and Institutes at Northeastern include:\n\n Advanced Scientific Computation Center (ASCC)\n Anti–microbial Discovery Center\n Awareness and Localization of Explosives-Related Threats (ALERT)\n Barnett Institute of Chemical and Biological Analysis\n Bernard M. Gordon Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems (Gordon-CenSSIS)\n Brudnick Center on Violence and Conflict\n Center for Communications and Digital Signal Processing (CDSP)\n Center for Community Health Education, Research, and Service (CCHERS)\n Center for Complex Network Research (CCNR)\n Center for Drug Discovery\n Center for Emerging Markets\n Center for Entrepreneurship Education\n Center for Family Business\n Center for Health Policy and Healthcare Research\n Center for Health Policy and Law\n Center for Healthcare Organizational Transformation (CHOT)\n Center for High-rate Nanomanufacturing (CHN)\n Center for Inclusive Computing\n Center for Integrative Biomedical Computing (CIBC)\n Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Complex Systems (CIRCS)\n Center for International Affairs and World Cultures\n Center for Law, Innovation, and Creativity (CLIC)\n Center for Microcontamination Control (CMC)\n Center for Microwave Magnetic Materials and Integrated Circuits (CM3IC)\n Center for Pharmaceutical Biotechnology and Nanomedicine\n Center for Public Interest Advocacy and Collaboration (CPIAC)\n Center for Research on Early Childhood Exposure and Development in Puerto Rico (CRECE)\n Center for Translational Applications of Nanoscale Multiferroic Systems (TANMS)\n Center for Translational NeuroImaging (CTNI)\n Center for Ultra-wide-area Resilient Electric Energy Transmission Networks (CURENT)\n Center on Crime and Community Resilience\n CMS Innovation Center for Healthcare Systems Engineering\n Coastal Sustainability Institute\n Cybersecurity and Privacy Institute\n Dukakis Center for Urban and Regional Policy\n Electronic Materials Research Institute (eMRI)\n Ethics Institute\n George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security\n Global Resilience Institute\n Humanities Center\n Institute for Chemical Imaging of Living Systems\n Institute for Global Innovation Management (IGIM)\n Institute for Health Equity and Social Justice Research\n Institute for Information Assurance\n Institute for Security and Public Policy\n Institute for the Wireless Internet of Things\n Institute on Race and Justice\n Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex (ISEC)\n Marine Science Center\n National Education and Research Center for Outcomes Assessment in Healthcare (NERCOA)\n Network Science Institute\n New England Healthcare Systems Engineering Partnership (NEHCEP)\n New England Inflammation and Tissue Protection Institute\n Northeastern University Center for Renewable Energy Technology (NUCRET)\n NULab for Texts, Maps, and Networks\n Public Health Advocacy Institute (PHAI)\n Puerto Rico Testsite for Exploring Contamination Threats (PROTECT)\n Social Science Environmental Health Research Institute\n Sport in Society (previously the Center for the Study of Sport in Society)\n The Middle East Center\n The Northeastern Environmental Justice Research Collaborative (NEJRC)\n Versatile Onboard Traffic Embedded Roaming Sensors (VOTERS)\n\nThe university provides undergraduate students with an opportunity to engage in research through the Center for Experiential Education, CenSSIS Research Experience for Undergraduates,  Honors Research, Louis Stokes Alliance for Minority Participation program, and Provost\'s Office research grants. In FY 2007, annual external research funding exceeded $78\xa0million. In FY 2009–10, the research funding is close to $82\xa0million. In 2002, Northeastern\'s Center for Subsurface Sensing and Imaging Systems was designated an NSF Engineering Research Center. In 2004, Northeastern was one of six institutions selected by the National Science Foundation as a center for research in nanotechnology. In 2010, Northeastern was granted $12\xa0million by an alum for a Homeland security research facility, to be named the George J. Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, after its chief benefactor.\n\nFaculty\n\nNortheastern had 1,352 full-time faculty, 95% of whom possess a doctorate or the terminal degree in their field, and 479 part-time faculty in Fall 2018. Northeastern faculty members direct more than 35 research and education centers, including a National Science Foundation (NSF) Engineering Research Center, an NSF Nanomanufacturing Center, and two NSF Integrated Graduate Education and Research Traineeship programs.\n\n Campus \nNortheastern University\'s main campus is located on  mostly along Huntington Avenue and Columbus Avenue in an area known as the Fenway Cultural District, part of Boston\'s Fenway and Roxbury neighborhood, near the Museum of Fine Arts, Symphony Hall, New England Conservatory, and Christian Science Center.\n\nDespite its location in central Boston, Northeastern is home to a significant amount of green open space and quads. Since the late 1990s, Northeastern has been considered a model of design for urban universities and has twice won the American Institute of Architects\'s "Most Beautiful New or Renovated Exterior Space" award in 2001 and 2004. In 2019, the campus was officially designated as an arboretum by ArbNet, making it the only campus in Boston to receive the designation.\n\nThe first baseball World Series took place on the Huntington Avenue Grounds, now part of the campus. The site is commemorated in front of Churchill Hall by a statue of Cy Young.\n\nIn 2014, Northeastern officially launched a Public Art Initiative to place a series of colorful murals and other art around the Boston campus. Among those whose work has been commissioned are French artist Jef Aérosol, Houston-born artist Daniel Anguilu, Los Angeles-based El Mac and Charleston, South Carolina-born artist Shepard Fairey, known for his 2008 Barack Obama "Hope" poster.\n\nCampus development\n\nDuring the Great Depression in the 1930s, as enrollment grew to over 4,600 students, President Frank Palmer Speare announced that Northeastern would build a new campus. Coolidge Shepley Bulfinch and Abbott, a Boston-based architectural firm, was selected to design the campus near the Huntington Avenue YMCA building that continued to house library and classroom spaces. Richards Hall, which housed classrooms, laboratories and administrative offices, was the first building completed in October 1938. Its light gray, glazed brick exterior with vertical strips of windows was replicated in other buildings of what later became known as the 1944 master plan. A mix of Beaux-Arts and Bauhaus architectural styles defined by stripped-down classicism and open courtyards that resembled that of Massachusetts Institute of Technology across the Charles River. In a June 14, 1934 article, the Boston Evening Transcript described the campus design as "modernistic classical." President Carl Ell completed the remaining buildings of the master plan, including construction of the Cabot Physical Education Center, Churchill Hall and Hayden Hall.\n\nIn 1961, under President Asa Knowles, the university purchased a 7-acre red brick industrial complex once owned by the United Drug Company to build to athletic facilities. Three of the buildings facing Forsyth Street were demolished, but due to a need for more office and lab space, the remaining buildings were divided into four sections now called Lake Hall, Holmes Hall, Nightingale Hall and Meserve Hall. The historic structure, built in 1911, would influence new campus buildings away from the original gray-brick campus, as exemplified by the extension of the law school\'s Cargill Hall in the early 1980s. Over past few decades, Northeastern\'s academic and residential buildings have expanded considerably. Through landscape improvements, the university transformed a commuter school campus, once dominated by asphalt, to a greener environment. For example, the Behrakis Health Sciences Center, named for 1957 pharmaceutical alumnus George Behrakis, is a  mixed-use project that included a residence hall and parking garage containing a garden roof, integrates smoothly into the campus. Centennial Path was added in 1996 and connects the gray- and red-brick sections of campus with trees, flowers, shrubbery and gently curving brick and asphalt surfaces.\n\nDuring the last few years, major developments include Northeastern becoming recognized as an arboretum, opening a $225 million research and laboratory complex known as the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex (ISEC), launching the Institute for Experiential Artificial Intelligence with a $50 million donation, as well as renaming the College of Computer and Information Science to the Khoury College of Computer Sciences with another $50 million donation from Amin Khoury.\n\nUpcoming projects include plans to build EXP, another research facility created to support Northeastern\'s work in autonomous vehicles, drones, and humanoid robots. This building will be approximately  larger than ISEC and is expected to be completed by 2023.\n\nSustainability\n\nThe 2011 Sustainable Endowments Institute\'s College Sustainability Report Card issued Northeastern a grade of "A-" for its environmental sustainability efforts and programs. Additionally, the Princeton Review rated Northeastern as one of the top 15 "Green Colleges" in the nation in 2010. In 2011, the GreenMetric World University ranking evaluated Northeastern as the second greenest university in the world, and first in the US. Northeastern placed first in the rankings again in 2014.\n\nIn accordance with a Boston zoning code amendment in 2007, International Village residence hall was certified as a LEED Gold building in 2010. Dockser Hall was the first building on campus to achieve LEED certification, also Gold, with the completion of its renovation in 2010. East Village was rated LEED Silver in 2016 and the Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex was rated LEED Gold in 2018. The university affiliated LightView apartment building is targeting a LEED Platinum certification, the first in student housing in the City of Boston.\n\nIn 2004, Northeastern was awarded the prestigious gold medal by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for its Dedham Campus.\n\nPublic safety\n\nThe Northeastern University Police Department (NUPD) is a full-service law enforcement agency with full powers of arrest on university property or property used by Northeastern students and faculty. In 2019 NUPD received Advanced Accreditation with Excellence from the Commission on Accreditation for Law Enforcement Agencies (CALEA), one of six agencies in Massachusetts to receive CALEA accreditation. The campus is adjacent to the Boston Police Department\'s headquarters. A 2008 Reader\'s Digest survey ranked NU as the second safest school in the United States after Johns Hopkins University in Maryland.\n\nPublic transportation\nNortheastern is bracketed by the MBTA\'s Orange Line and Green Line E branch. Six stations serve the campus: Massachusetts Avenue and Ruggles on the Orange Line; and Symphony, Northeastern, Museum of Fine Arts, and Longwood Medical Area on the Green Line. The Green Line is paralleled by the #39 bus. Ruggles also serves the Needham, Providence/Stoughton, and Franklin Lines of the MBTA Commuter Rail system, and 14 local bus routes.\n\nLandmarks\nKrentzman Quadrangle\nFacing Huntington Avenue, Krentzman Quadrangle is the main quadrangle on the campus of Northeastern. It is recognizable by the "Northeastern University" brick sign in front. The quad lies at the heart of the original campus between Ell, Dodge and Richards halls, and serves as a gathering space for community members and outdoor activities. It was named after Harvey Krentzman, a businessman and 1949 alumnus.\n\nEll Hall\n\nEll Hall, completed in 1947, is one of the oldest buildings on campus and is centered on Krentzman Quadrangle. It contains administrative offices, classrooms, art display space, a 992-seat auditorium and the Northeastern Bookstore. Like Dodge Hall, Ell Hall has five floors and also connects to the tunnel network. The tunnels interconnect the major administrative and traditional academic buildings for use in inclement weather.\n\nBlackman Auditorium, Northeastern\'s largest event space, hosts many different types of events for classes, theater groups, dance teams, musical groups, choral groups, fraternities, sororities, and orchestral ensembles. Blackman has hosted many talented individuals from Maya Angelou to Seth Meyers.\n\nGallery 360 is Northeastern University\'s art gallery, which is free and open to the public throughout the year. The  space houses temporary exhibits of artworks by visiting artists, students, faculty, and the surrounding community. Some larger exhibits also include the adjacent hallways for additional space. Curation and administration is under the supervision of the College of Arts Media and Design (CAMD).\n\nEll Hall was named for Carl Ell, president of Northeastern from 1940 to 1959, who is credited with expanding the campus and making cooperative education an integral part of the university-wide curriculum.\n\nDodge Hall\nDodge Hall sits on Krentzman Quadrangle and primarily serves as the home of Northeastern\'s D\'Amore-McKim School of Business. The building was completed in 1952 and named for Robert Gray Dodge, a former chairman of Northeastern\'s board of trustees. It has five floors. Classrooms and a lounge area occupy the first floor. The business school\'s undergraduate office is on the second floor and the graduate office is on the third floor. The School of Professional Accounting office is on the fourth floor. The basement houses a computer lab and is connected to the university\'s large network of tunnels.\n\nFrom 1953 until Snell Library opened in 1990, Dodge Hall\'s basement served as the university\'s main library. Directly behind Dodge Hall is the Boston YMCA, where Northeastern was founded in 1898.\n\nRichards Hall\nOriginally known as West Building, Richards Hall borders Krentzman Quadrangle and was the first building constructed on campus in October 1938. Its light gray brick and vertical window strips design was the work of alumnus Herman Voss and was replicated in other surrounding buildings. It is an administrative building with some academic space.\n\nRichards Hall was named for Boston industrialist James Lorin Richards, a former board trustee.\n\nCentennial Common\nCentennial Common is a lawn created to mark the 100th anniversary of Northeastern University in 1998. The grassy area borders Shillman Hall, Ryder Hall, Meserve Hall, Leon Street, Forsyth Street and Ruggles Station, and serves as a gateway to the West Campus. The area is a popular gathering spot frequently used by students for recreational purposes and outdoor activities by student organizations.\n\nInterdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex\n\nOn February 21, 2014, Northeastern had its groundbreaking ceremony for the new Interdisciplinary Science & Engineering Complex (ISEC) on Columbus Avenue. Completed in 2017, the  building provides research and educational space for students and faculty from the College of Science, Bouvé College of Health Sciences, College of Engineering, and Khoury College of Computer Sciences. The centerpiece of the complex includes a large atrium, a spiral staircase, and a 280-seat auditorium.\n\nMatthews Arena\n\nOpened in 1910 and originally known as the Boston Arena, Matthews Arena is the world\'s oldest surviving indoor ice hockey arena. Located on the eastern edge of Northeastern University\'s campus, it is home to the Northeastern Huskies men\'s and women\'s hockey teams, and men\'s basketball team as well as the Wentworth Institute of Technology\'s men\'s hockey team. The arena is named after former university Board of Trustees Chairman George J. Matthews, a 1956 graduate, and his wife, the late Hope M. Matthews, who helped fund a major renovation in 1982. The arena is the original home of the NHL Boston Bruins and the WHA New England Whalers (now the NHL Carolina Hurricanes). It was also the secondary home to the NBA Boston Celtics in the 1940s. It has hosted all or part of the America East Conference men\'s basketball tournament a total of seven times and hosted the 1960 Frozen Four. The arena also served as the original home to the annual Beanpot tournament between Boston\'s four major college hockey programs.\n\nMarino Recreation Center\n\nThe Marino Recreation Center, named after 1961 alumnus Roger Marino, co-founder of EMC Corporation, is an indoor fitness center that opened in the Fall of 1996. Its first floor contains an atrium with two cafés (Tatte and b.good) and a food market (Wollaston\'s). The second floor includes a student exercise area, a multipurpose room used for aerobics classes and martial arts clubs, and a gymnasium consisting of three basketball courts. The third floor has a state-of-the-art resistance training area and a fully equipped free weight room. A three-lane suspended track is available for either walking or jogging, and rowing ergometers are available.\n\n Residential Halls \nResidential halls at Northeastern vary quite significantly from low-rise former Boston apartment buildings to purpose built high-rise dormitories. Residential halls vary in size from as few as 50 students to as many as 1,000 per building.Traditional Accommodations Hastings Hall\n Kerr Hall\n Light Hall\n Melvin Hall\n Smith Hall\n Speare Hall\n Stetson East\n Stetson West\n White HallSuite-Style Accommodations 153 Hemenway Street\n Kennedy Hall\n International Village\n East VillageApartment-Style Accommodations Davenport Commons (A & B)\n West Villages (A, B, C, E, F, G, H)\n 10 Coventry\n 780 Columbus Ave\n 106, 110, 116, 122 St Stephen St\n 319, 337 & 407 Huntington Ave\n Burstein Hall\n Loftman Hall\n Rubenstein Hall\n Willis Hall\n 144 Hemenway St\n Lightview\n\nFirst-year students are usually divided into groups called Living Learning Communities (LLCs) which place students with certain majors, interests or hobbies together. LLCs host events related to specific areas of interest for members of that LLC to participate in. LLCs can span sections of floors in a residential hall, entire floors, multiple floors or entire buildings.\n\nEast Village\nEast Village is Northeastern\'s newest dorm building and only houses freshmen and upperclassmen who are in the University Honors Program. The building is located at 291 St. Botolph Street and opened in January 2015. Honors freshman live in its suite-style rooms whereas upperclassmen can choose full apartments with kitchen facilities. The building also contains 5 classrooms in the basement and an event space on the 17th Floor.\n\nWest Village\n\nThe West Village complex includes eight buildings serving mainly as residence halls and classrooms.\n Building A (opened 1999): Residence Hall (two sections, West Village A North and South).\n Building B (opened 2001): Residence Hall.\n Building C (opened 2001): Residence Hall (several floors for upperclassmen honors students) and one classroom.\n Building D – Behrakis Health Science Center (opened 2002): classrooms and laboratories\n Building E (opened 2002): Residence Hall.\n Building G (opened 2004): Residence Hall and several classrooms.\n Building H (opened 2004): Residence Hall. Open to students who are over the age of 21. Single rooms only. It\'s the new home of the Khoury College of Computer Sciences (several classrooms, offices and computer labs). Building H was originally reserved for honors student, but that rule was dropped.\n Building F (opened 2006): Residence Hall for upper-class students, classrooms, John D. O\'Bryant African-American Institute, Admissions Visitors Center.\n\nIn 2008, West Village Building F was recognized in American Institute of Architects New England 2008 Merit Awards for Design Excellence.\n\nSouth Campus (Columbus Avenue)\nNortheastern\'s southernmost section of campus is located along Columbus Avenue in Roxbury, parallel to the Orange line. The university expanded south into Roxbury at the same time as they were building West Village. In 2001, Davenport Commons was opened, providing 585 students housing in two residence halls while 75 families representing a range of incomes have been able to purchase a condo or townhouse at or below Boston\'s market value. Davenport Commons also created commercial space on Tremont Street.\n\nDuring the summer of 2006, Northeastern proposed a new residence hall further away from the main campus, at the corner of Tremont Street and Ruggles Street. Construction began in late February 2007. In the Spring of 2009, the complex was named International Village and opened later that Summer. It consists of three interconnected residential towers, an office tower, administration building, and a gym. A 400-seat dining hall is available to all members of the Northeastern community as well as the public.\n\nLightview was launched in 2019, which was Boston\'s first developer-led, equity-financed student housing project built and financed by American Campus Communities exclusively for Northeastern students. The building is 20 stories tall and includes a fitness area as well as social and recreational spaces.\n\nThe following buildings make up the South Campus:Residential buildings Davenport Commons A – 2000\n Davenport Commons B – 2000\n 780 Columbus Avenue – 2001 (converted lofts; formerly South End Auto Supply) \n 768 Columbus Avenue (faculty/graduate students)\n 10 Coventry – 2005\n International Village – 2009\n LightView Apartments – 2019Administrative buildings Columbus Place – 1997\n Renaissance Park \n International Village Office Building – 2009\n Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Building – 2017Athletic buildings Badger and Rosen Facility (SquashBusters) – 2003\n\nLibrary facilities\nNortheastern University Libraries include the Snell Library and the John D. O\'Bryant African-American Institute Library. The NU School of Law Library is separately administered by the NU School of Law.\n\nThe Snell Library opened in 1990 at a cost of $35\xa0million, and contains 1.3\xa0million volumes. The main library is open 24 hours a day, allowing students to research or study at any time they wish. The Digital Media Design Studio within the library is a collaborative and interdisciplinary learning environment for creating course-related multimedia presentations, projects, and portfolios.\n\nThe library is home to the Favat Collection, a current collection of children\'s literature and K-12 curriculum resources, instructional materials, and related information to support courses offered by the School of Education. It contains three computer labs operated by NU Information Services. Two are available to all NU students, faculty, and staff; the other is a teaching lab.\n\nThe Snell Library is also home to the Northeastern University Archives and Special Collections department, which includes the Benjamin LaGuer papers collection. The Special Collections focus on records of Boston-area community-based organizations that are concerned with social justice issues.\n\nThe NU Libraries received federal depository designation in 1963. As a selective depository, the Libraries receive 45% of the federal publication series available to depository libraries.\n\nIn June 2016, the library staff adopted an open-access policy to make its members\' professional research publicly accessible online.Dining Facilities\'\'\'\n\nNortheastern features two dining halls with buffet-style offerings. These include the Levine Marketplace at Stetson East and International Village Dining at the International village residence hall on the southern portion of campus. Both halls allow students to gain access either by cashing in a meal pass stored on their Husky Card or purchasing access at the door using a credit card. Once inside, students are able to eat as much food as they please before leaving.\n\nSpiritual Life Center and Sacred Space\nWithin the urban environment that characterizes the campus as a whole, NU has carved out a quiet, peaceful space in the centrally located Ell Building for the Spiritual Life Center\'s Sacred Space. The nondenominational Sacred Space, the center\'s main assembly hall, can be configured with carpets, mats or chairs. It has a distinctive ceiling consisting of 3 hanging domes made of overlapping aluminum tiles with an origami-like effect, warm wood floors and accents, and glass-paneled walls that lean outward slightly, their shape and material giving a sense of openness and volume to the space. Faucets for ablution are available in a flanking antechamber, and the center also contains a smaller meeting space and library. The Sacred Space opened in 1998. The architects Office dA (Nader Tehrani & Monica Ponce de Leon)  received the 2002 Harleston Parker Medal from the Boston Society of Architects for the design.\n\nNetwork campuses\n\nIn addition to Northeastern\'s main Boston campus, the university operates a number of satellite locations in Massachusetts, including the George J. Kostas Research Institute in Burlington, a Financial District campus in the Hilton Hotel near Faneuil Hall in downtown Boston, a Dedham Campus in Dedham, and a Marine Science Center in Nahant. The Kostas Research Institute for Homeland Security, which opened in 2011, contains the Laboratory for Structural Testing of Resilient and Sustainable Systems (STReSS Laboratory). The laboratory is "equipped to test full-scale and large-scale structural systems and materials to failure so as to explore the development of new strategies for designing, simulating, and sensing structural and infrastructure systems".\n\nThe university has also launched a number of full-service remote network campuses in North America, including in Charlotte, North Carolina, in October 2011, Seattle, in January 2013, San Jose, California, in March 2015, Toronto, in 2016 and Vancouver, British Columbia in 2019. In January 2020, Northeastern announced that it was opening the Roux Institute in Portland, Maine, a new research institute focused on artificial intelligence and machine learning in digital and life sciences. The decision came after Northeastern was selected for a $100 million donation by David Roux, in hopes of turning the city into a new tech hub and in an attempt to spark economic growth in the region.\n\nMore recently, the university has continued to focus on global expansion. In late 2018, Northeastern announced the acquisition of the New College of the Humanities, a small private London-based college founded by the philosopher A. C. Grayling. The move was seen as unorthodox as most U.S. colleges have typically chosen to build new campus branches abroad, rather than purchasing existing ones.\n\nIn June 2021, Northeastern and Mills College in Oakland, California, announced preliminary plans for a merger. Under the tentative plans, the liberal arts college, which faced financial and declining enrollment troubles, would be renamed Mills College at Northeastern University. In September 2021, the merger was finalized, creating the Mills Institute.\n\nStudent organizations\n\nNortheastern University offers students the opportunity to join various ethnic, cultural and political organizations, along with numerous honor societies, special interest groups, fraternities, and sororities. Northeastern has more than 16 varsity teams competing in the NCAA, over 30 club sports teams and over 400 student clubs and organizations. Among the student-run organizations are: Resident Student Association (RSA), Student Government Association (SGA), The Huntington News, Northeastern University Television (NUTV), Fraternity and Sorority Life (FSL), Social Justice Resource Center (SJRC), and the Council for University Programs (CUP) organize activities for Northeastern students as well as the surrounding community.\n\nNortheastern hosts six student-run a cappella groups on campus: three mixed ensembles (Distilled Harmony, The Downbeats, and The Nor\'easters), two treble ensembles (Pitch, Please! and Treble on Huntington), and one TTBB ensemble (UniSons). All groups regularly compete in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA). The Nor\'easters have performed at ICCA finals in New York City three times and won the ICCA title in 2013 and 2017. Pitch, Please! competed at ICCA finals in 2019. In 2020, The A Cappella Archive ranked The Nor\'easters and Pitch, Please! at #3 and #22 out of all ICCA-competing groups.\n\nAthletics and traditions\n\nSince 1927, Northeastern University\'s intercollegiate athletic teams have been known as the Huskies. Prior to 1927, Northeastern had no official mascot. A committee was formed to choose a mascot and members eventually settled on the Siberian Husky. In February 1927, a pup was selected from legendary Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race competitor Leonhard Seppala\'s kennel in Poland Springs, Maine. On March 4, 1927, King Husky I arrived at Northeastern in a campus celebration for which classes were canceled. Since then, live mascots have been a Siberian Husky breed, but after losing two mascots in three months in the early 1970s and after upheaval due to having live canine mascots, the university\'s administration was reluctant to continue the live mascot tradition. In 2005, the university resumed the live mascot tradition; the current live mascot is named Moses. The university\'s official costumed mascot is Paws.\n\nThe university\'s official colors are Northeastern red and black, with white often used as an alternate color. The university fight song, "All Hail, Northeastern," was composed by Charles A. Pethybridge, class of 1932. Since 2005, 14 of 18 Northeastern varsity sports teams primarily compete in NCAA Division I\'s Colonial Athletic Association (CAA). Northeastern maintains crosstown athletic rivalries primarily with Boston University, Harvard University and Boston College. It also regularly competes against in-state rival University of Massachusetts at Amherst.\n\nDuring its first decades, Northeastern initially had seven athletics teams: basketball, cross country, indoor track, outdoor track, crew and football. It has since expanded to more than 16 varsity teams.\n\nNortheastern sponsors the following sports teams:\n (M) Baseball\n (M), (W) Basketball\n (M), (W) Cross country\n (W) Field hockey\n (M), (W) Ice hockey (in Hockey East)\n (M), (W) Rowing (in Eastern Association of Rowing Colleges and Eastern Association of Women\'s Rowing Colleges)\n (M), (W) Soccer\n (W) Swimming and diving\n (M), (W) Track and field\n (W) Volleyball\n\nThe baseball, soccer, lacrosse and rugby teams compete at Parsons Field, a multipurpose facility located in Brookline, a mile and a half from the campus. The field\'s baseball diamond was named Friedman Diamond in 1988. The field hockey team, along with the Huskies\' track and field teams, compete at a sports complex about  away from campus in Dedham. Matthews Arena, which opened 1910, is home to the hockey and basketball programs. The 4,666-seat arena is located close to campus, just off Massachusetts Avenue. It is considered the world\'s oldest multi-purpose athletic building. Henderson Boathouse is home to the Huskies\' men\'s & women\'s rowing squads. The Henderson Boathouse is located on the Charles River near Soldiers Field Road in Allston. The university also maintains the Cabot Physical Education Center, which opened in 1954 and includes a basketball court; an indoor track and natatorium; the  Gries Center for Sports Medicine and Performance Center; a squash facility; and the William E. Carter Playground, a renovated community park on Columbus Avenue.\n\nThe baseball team was founded in 1921 and has since competed in one College World Series and played in the NCAA regionals seven times. It regularly competes in the Baseball Beanpot, a tournament contested annually between Boston College, Boston University, Harvard University, Northeastern University and University of Massachusetts at Amherst. It has won the tournament six times.\n\nThe history of the men\'s basketball team dates back to its first season in 1920–21. In its first year in the CAA, the team finished in 6th place out of 12 teams and advanced to the semifinals of the conference tournament. The CAA proved to be a competitive conference in the 2006 NCAA Basketball Tournament, as George Mason University advanced to the Final Four. The women\'s basketball program began in 1966. In 2007, its second year in the CAA, the women\'s track team captured the conference championship, while the volleyball team finished second. The women\'s basketball team won 10 more games in 2008 than the previous year, the biggest one-year turnaround in the CAA, and advanced to the tournament quarterfinals.\n\nThe Northeastern crew team consistently ranks as one of the top 10 teams in the nation. In the 2008 National Championship, the team made the Grand Finals and placed fourth behind University of Wisconsin–Madison, University of Washington, and University of California, Berkeley, while defeating Brown University, Princeton University, University of Pennsylvania and Harvard University.\n\nIn 2009, Northeastern eliminated its 74-year-old football program. From 1933 to 2009, the Northeastern Huskies football program\'s all-time record was 290-365-17 (.444), it produced 20 All-Americans and won the 2002 Atlantic 10 Conference championship. Citing sparse attendance, numerous losing seasons and the expense to renovate Parsons Field to an acceptable standard, the university\'s Board of Trustees voted on November 20, 2009, to end the football program. According to President Joseph Aoun, "Leadership requires that we make these choices. This decision allows us to focus on our existing athletic programs."\n\nIn addition to intercollegiate athletics, Northeastern offers 40 club sports, including sailing, judo, rugby, lacrosse, Olympic-Style taekwondo, alpine skiing, squash, cycling, and ultimate Frisbee. In 2005 the women\'s rugby team finished third in the nation in Division II, while in the same year the men\'s rugby team won the largest annual tournament in the United States. Recently, the women\'s rugby team competed and placed 11th at the Collegiate Rugby Championship. The men\'s lacrosse team began the 2008 season ranked in the Top 10 nationally. The men\'s and women\'s squash team finished the 2008 season ranked in the Top 20 nationally. In the 2008–09 academic year the Northeastern Club Field Hockey and Women\'s Basketball teams won their respective National Championships. From 2007 to 2009, the Northeastern Club Baseball team won three straight New England Club Baseball Association championships. The Club Taekwondo team placed 1st overall in Division II for the 2018–19 Season in the Eastern Collegiate Taekwondo Conference.\n\nOn May 25, 2010, the club baseball team defeated Penn State to win the National Club Baseball Association Division II World Series and the national championship.\n\nSome notable athletes have competed for Northeastern\'s athletic teams. Dan Ross played football at Northeastern long before setting the Super Bowl record for receptions in a game. Reggie Lewis still holds the men\'s basketball career scoring record. José Barea played point guard for the Huskies and averaged 21 points, 4.4 rebounds, 8.4 assists per game as a senior. Barea was signed by the Dallas Mavericks in 2006. Carlos Peña was named Major League Baseball\'s American League Comeback Player of the Year in 2007 and an AL Gold Glove winner in 2008. The U.S. Olympic women\'s ice hockey teams have included Northeastern alumni Shelley Looney and Chanda Gunn.\n\nIce hockey\nIce hockey has been one of Northeastern\'s most prominent athletic programs. The men\'s and women\'s hockey teams compete in the Hockey East conference. During the 2007–08 season, the men\'s team ranked as high at #7 in the country and held the top spot in the conference before finishing the season in sixth place in Hockey East. Both teams also participate in the annual ice hockey Beanpot tournament between the Boston area\'s four major college hockey schools. Northeastern\'s men\'s team has won the annual event 6 times in its 56-year history, while the women\'s team has captured the Beanpot 14 times. During the 2008–09 season, the men\'s team ranked as high as 3rd in the nation and held the top spot in Hockey East until the last weekend of the season; the team made the NCAA tournament for the first time since 1994, the Beanpot championship game for the first time since 2004, and goalie Brad Thiessen made the Hobey Hat Trick, only the second Northeastern player to do so. Northeastern won the 2018 Beanpot championship by defeating Boston College 3–0 in the first match and defeating Boston University 5–2 in the final match. The victory came after Northeastern attained the highest placement in the 2017-2018 standings of the Beanpot competitors. Northeastern defeated Boston College 4–2 to win the 2019 Beanpot and defeated Boston University 5–4 to win the 2020 Beanpot. In 2020, Northeastern beat Boston University 5–4 in overtime to win the Beanpot for the third year in a row.\n\nThe Beanpot also presents two awards to individual players. One is for the most valuable player and one is to the best goalie (determined by best save percentage). The second award is named the Eberly award after Glen and Dan Eberly who were goalies at Northeastern and Boston University. In addition to winning the Beanpot title, Northeastern took home both awards with the award for most valuable player being presented to Adam Gaudette and the Eberly Award being presented to Cayden Primeau who had a save percentage of .974 (making him the goalie with second highest save percentage to win the award in the 44 years the award has been given).\n\n Notable alumni and faculty \n\nNortheastern University has more than 275,000 living alumni based in over 180 countries around the world. Many alumni have distinguished themselves in a wide range of endeavors. They include Nikesh Arora, former senior VP & Chief Business Officer of Google and CEO of Palo Alto Networks; activist short seller Andrew Left; professional basketball player José Juan Barea; Starry Internet CEO Chet Kanojia; former Kodak CEO Jeff Clarke; investigative journalist and Elmer Ferguson Memorial Award recipient Russ Conway; former Massachusetts U.S. Senator Mo Cowan; Saturday Night Live original cast member and actress Jane Curtin; marathon runner Beatie Deutsch; former United States Ambassador to Ireland Richard Egan; filmmaker, musician, and writer Michael J. Epstein; Napster  co-founder Shawn Fanning; 10th Archivist of the United States David Ferriero; musician and video game developer Toby Fox; musician John Geils; Webby Award-honored media producer Alan Catello Grazioso; electronic dance music producer RL Grime; New Hampshire governor and U.S. Senator Maggie Hassan; Massachusetts Attorney General Maura Healey; Academy Award-nominated director and screenwriter Courtney Hunt; Space Shuttle Challenger astronaut Gregory Jarvis; fashion model and actress Beverly Johnson; Amin Khoury, founder of B/E Aerospace and CEO of KLX Energy Services Holdings; U.S. Olympian (bobsled) and silver medalist Steven Langton; University at Buffalo neurosurgery professor Elad Levy; professional basketball player Reggie Lewis; college president Thomas Michael McGovern; former NPR co-host of Car Talk Tom Magliozzi; actor David Marciano; EMC Corporation co-founder Roger Marino; CEO and Souq.com co-founder Ronaldo Mouchawar; comedian Patrice O\'Neal; Washington, D.C. politician Oye Owolewa; billionaire businessman James Pallotta; computer scientist, and researcher Andrea Grimes Parker; former Rhode Island U.S. Senator and governor John O. Pastore; professional baseball player Carlos Peña; Boston Dynamics CEO and founder Marc Raibert; National Football League All-Pro Dan Ross; filmmaker Bettina Santo Domingo; Twitter co-founder Biz Stone; actor Vaughn Taylor; world champion surfer Shaun Tomson; and television & radio talk show host Wendy Williams.\n\nNotable faculty\n Michael Dukakis, Former Governor of Massachusetts, Democratic Presidential Nominee in 1988, Professor of Political Science\n Matthias Felleisen, Author of How to Design Programs\'\', Professor of Computer Science\n Mary Florentine, psychoacoustician, Matthews Distinguished Professor\n Pran Nath, co-developer of the theory of supergravity\nNada Sanders,  Distinguished Professor of Supply Chain Management at the D’Amore-McKim School of Business\n\nSee also\n Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering Complex\n Northeastern University (MBTA station)\n Ruggles (MBTA station)\n South End Grounds\n Timeline of Boston\n D\'Amore-McKim School of Business\n Khoury College of Computer Sciences\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\n \n Northeastern University Athletics website\n\n \nEducational institutions established in 1898\nUniversities and colleges in Boston\nPrivate universities and colleges in Massachusetts\n1898 establishments in Massachusetts\nUniversities and colleges founded by the YMCA'},
 {'id': '24235122',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Northeastern%20University%20people',
  'title': 'List of Northeastern University people',
  'text': 'The following is a list of notable alumni and faculty of Northeastern University.\n\nAlumni\n\nBusiness\n\n Marc Raibert – founder and CEO, Boston Dynamics\n Nikesh Arora – President and Chief Operating Officer of SoftBank\n Jeff Bornstein – CFO, General Electric\n Robert A. Brooks – founder and CEO, Brooks Fiber Properties\n George Chamillard – former CEO, Teradyne, Inc.\n Jeff Clarke – CEO, Kodak\n Jeff Cooper – COO and co-founder, EPOX-Z Corporation\n Bob Davis – CEO and founder, Lycos\n Richard Egan – co-founder, EMC\n Shawn Fanning – founder, Napster\n Jerald G. Fishman – CEO, Analog Devices\n George Kariotis – founder, Alpha Industries\n Amin Khoury – founder and CEO, B/E Aerospace\n Andrew Left – activist short seller\n Roger Marino – co-founder of EMC; former part-owner of Pittsburgh Penguins\n Alan McKim – CEO and founder, Clean Harbors\n Larry Meyer – CEO, Uniqlo USA\n Srinath Narayanan – principal, Canaccord Adams\nJeffrey Rosen - billionaire businessman\n Peter W. Smith – investment banker, Republican activist\n Sy Sternberg – chairman and CEO, New York Life Insurance Company\n Biz Stone – co-founder of Twitter\n\nGovernment and politics\n Jayson P. Ahern – Deputy Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection\n Olubanke King Akerele – Liberian Foreign Minister\n George F. Archambault – Pharmacy Liaison Officer for the United States Public Health Service\n Demetrius J. Atsalis – member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1999–2013)\n Thomas Calter – member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2007–present)\n Christie Carpino – member of the Connecticut House of Representatives\n Cheryl A. Coakley-Rivera – member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1999–2014)\n Mo Cowan – U.S. Senator of Massachusetts\n Harold Daniel Donohue – member of the U.S. House of Representatives (1947–1974)\n David Chu – member of the Legislative Council of Hong Kong (1997–2004) and the 9th and 10th National People\'s Congress of the People\'s Republic of China\n Patrick Duddy – U.S. Ambassador\n Richard Egan – U.S. Ambassador\n David Ferriero – 10th Archivist of the United States \n Thomas Finneran – former Speaker of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (1996–2004)\n Gordon D. Fox – Majority Leader of the Rhode Island House of Representatives (2010–2014)\n Peter Franchot – Comptroller of Maryland\n Maggie Hassan – Governor of New Hampshire (2013–2017) and the current junior United States senator from New Hampshire \n Russell Holmes – member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives (2011–present)\n Roderick L. Ireland - Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court Chief Justice\n Edward Jackamonis – speaker of the Wisconsin State Assembly\n James Franklin Jeffrey – U.S. Ambassador\n Lyndon LaRouche – perennial presidential candidate\n Hadassah Lieberman – wife of Connecticut senator Joseph Lieberman\n Adnan Aurangzeb Miangul – former Pakistani parliament member and Prince of Swat, Pakistan\n Paul Parks –Massachusetts Secretary of Education (1975–1979)\n John O. Pastore – Governor of Rhode Island\n Ari Porth – member of the Florida House of Representatives\n Theodore Speliotis – member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives\n Karen Spilka – member of the Massachusetts State Senate \n Wallace Stickney – Director of the Federal Emergency Management Agency under President George H. W. Bush\nThomas Winkowski - He was previously Acting Commissioner of U.S. Customs and Border Protection (CBP). Former retired former Principal Deputy Assistant Secretary for U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE).\n Leslie Winner – North Carolina State Senator\n\nJudiciary\nMargot Botsford – Justice, Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court\nLinda Dalianis – Justice, New Hampshire Supreme Court\nDana Fabe – Chief Justice, Alaska Supreme Court\nEdward Hennessey – Justice, Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court\nPeter T. Zarella – Justice, Connecticut Supreme Court\n\nScience and technology\nHans Baumann – inventor and engineer\nGeorge D. Behrakis – inventor of Tylenol\nAmy Bishop – former professor; convicted murderer\nHans R. Camenzind – inventor of the 555 timer IC\nRichard P. Gabriel – expert on the Lisp programming language\nGregory Jarvis – astronaut\nEugene F. Lally – aerospace engineer, photographer, entrepreneur\nYale Patt – engineer\nAlbert Sacco – astronaut\n\nMilitary\nMark P. Fitzgerald –  United States Navy Admiral\nRichard I. Neal – United States Marine Corps General\n\nJournalism and communications\n Ernie Anastos – New York City TV news anchorman\n Eddie Andelman – sports radio talk show host (MBA)\n Bill Barnwell – sportswriter, ESPN, Grantland\n Michelle Bonner – ESPNEWS/Sports Center anchor\n Fred Cusick – sportscaster\n Richard Daniels – former president, Boston Globe\n Nat Hentoff – contributing editor, The New Yorker Magazine\n Dan Mason – radio host\n Will McDonough – sportswriter, Boston Globe \n Don Orsillo – TV broadcaster\n Walter V. Robinson – investigative journalist, 2003 Pulitzer Prize for Public Service recipient\n Michael Slackman – International Managing Editor, The New York Times\n\nArts and entertainment\n Al Barile – singer, guitarist for hardcore punk band SS Decontrol\n Earle Brown – composer, developed open-form scores\n Joy Browne - radio talk show host\n Terry Carter – actor, Sgt. Joe Broadhurst in McCloud and Colonel Tigh in the original Battlestar Galactica\n Carla Cook – Grammy-nominated jazz vocalist\n Jane Curtin – actress, comedian, and founding member of Saturday Night Live \n Michael J. Epstein – filmmaker and musician\n Martín Espada – poet\n Damien Fahey – former host of the MTV program TRL\nToby Fox – game designer and developer of Undertale\n Mohammed Saeed Harib – creator of Freej\n Alex Garcia – Food Network chef\n Meredith Garniss – visual artist and landscape painter\nSidney Gish - singer/songwriter\n Alan Catello Grazioso – Emmy Award winning television producer, director and editor\n Courtney Hunt – writer and director, whose film Frozen River was nominated for an Academy Award\n Beverly Johnson – supermodel and actress\n Aisha Kahlil – dancer, singer\n Barbara Kopple – documentary filmmaker\n Diana Lemieux – freelance photographer\n Patrice O\'Neal – comedian and actor\n Peter Orner – fiction writer\n Jillian Wheeler – singer/songwriter\n Wendy Williams – radio and television, host of The Wendy Williams Show\n\nAcademia and nonprofit\nWilliam M. Fowler – author, professor, and former Director of the Massachusetts Historical Society\n Michael R. Lane – 15th president of Emporia State University\nDean Tong – author and consultant\nMichael L. Tushman – organizational theorist, professor at Harvard Business School\nJohn D Sullivan, Ph.D. - Assistant Dean and associate professor at Boston University\n\nSports\n\n Zachary Aston-Reese – NHL, Pittsburgh Penguins\n José Juan Barea – Dallas Mavericks, NBA\n Harry Barnes – San Diego Rockets, NBA\n Ed Barry – Boston Bruins, National Hockey League (NHL)\n Sandy Beadle –  Winnipeg Jets, NHL\n Bruce Bickford –gold medal-winning distance runner\n Randy Bucyk –  Montreal Canadiens,  Calgary Flames, NHL\n Joe Callahan –  Boston Bees, MLB\n Lynn Chiavaro basketball player and coach\n Art Chisholm – Boston Bruins, NHL\n Rob Cowie –  Los Angeles Kings, NHL\n Kendall Coyne – silver and gold medalist United States women\'s national ice hockey team\n Jim Fahey – NHL defenseman, New Jersey Devils\n Amber Ferreira – professional triathlete \n Fernie Flaman – NHL Hockey Hall of Famer\n Tony Fryklund – professional mixed martial arts fighter\n Adam Gaudette –  Hobey Baker Award recipient, NHL center, Vancouver Canucks\n Chelsey Goldberg  – ice hockey player, Boston Blades, CWHL\n Scott Gruhl –  Pittsburgh Penguins, NHL \n "Wild" Bill Hunnefield – Major League Baseball (MLB) \nShawn James – professional basketball player for Maccabi Tel Aviv\n Sean Jones – National Football League\n Steven Langton – United States Olympian (Bobsled) \n Dave Leitao – college basketball coach\nDevon Levi (born 2001) - Canadian ice hockey player\n Reggie Lewis – Boston Celtics\n Pat Mason – college baseball coach at Virginia Tech\n Dan McGillis – NHL defenseman\n Perry Moss – 1986 Washington Bullets, Philadelphia 76ers, 1987 Golden State Warriors\n Chris Nilan – Montreal Canadiens, Boston Bruins, New York Rangers\n Jamie Oleksiak –NHL, Dallas Stars\n Adam Ottavino – 1st-round pick in 2006 MLB draft, pitcher for St. Louis Cardinals (2010), Colorado Rockies (2012–2018), New York Yankees (2019-2020) Boston Red Sox (2021-Present)\n Charlie Paulk – NBA, 1968–1970 Milwaukee Bucks, 1970–1971 Cincinnati Royals, 1971 Chicago Bulls, 1971–1972 New York Knicks\n Carlos Peña – MLB first baseman/outfielder, Oakland Athletics, Detroit Tigers, Boston Red Sox, Tampa Bay Rays\n David Poile - NHL executive\n Bruce Racine – NHL goaltender, St. Louis Blues\n Dan Ross – NFL Cincinnati Bengals and Super Bowl record setter\n Michael Ryan – NHL left winger, Buffalo Sabres\n Florence Schelling – goaltender for the Switzerland\'s Women\'s Ice Hockey Team\n Dylan Sikura – NHL center, Chicago Blackhawks\n Brian Sullivan – NHL, 1992–93 New Jersey Devils\n Josh Heinrich Taves – NFL football player, 2000–02, Oakland Raiders and Carolina Panthers\n Brad Thiessen - NHL, Pittsburgh Penguins\n Jocko Thompson – MLB pitcher, 1948–51 Philadelphia Phillies\n Johnny Tobin – MLB, 1932 New York Giants\n Shaun Tomson (born 1955) - South African world champion surfer\n Joe Vitale – NHL, center for Pittsburgh Penguins\n Ashley Wagner (born 1991), figure skater\n Jim Walsh - Buffalo Sabres, NHL\n Kurt Walker – NHL, 1975–78 Toronto Maple Leafs\n Rick Weitzman – 1968, World Champion, Boston Celtics\n Keith Willis – NFL, Pittsburgh Steelers\n Hillary Witt – assistant coach for the United States women\'s national ice hockey team in the Sochi 2014 Olympics\n George Yankowski – MLB, 1942 Philadelphia Athletics, 1949 Chicago White Sox\n Reema Juffali – Saudi Arabian racing driver\n\nFaculty\n M. Shahid Alam\n Auroop Ratan Ganguly –  Water & Climate Science, Data & Network Science, and Infrastructure Resilience\n Daniel P. Aldrich – expert on social capital and resilience in disaster\n Albert-László Barabási – American Physical Society Fellow and contributor to the development of real-world network theory\n Lisa Feldman Barrett – Distinguished Professor of Psychology, fellow of AAAS\n Barry Bluestone – founding director of the Kitty and Michael Dukakis Center for Urban and Regional Policy\n Ed Bullins – playwright and Guggenheim Fellow\n Joe Castiglione – MLB radio announcer\n Tim Cresswell – human geographer and poet\n Rose Laub Coser – sociologist; vice-president of the American Sociological Association; president of the Eastern Sociological Society \n Nicholas Daniloff – correspondent for UPI and U.S. News & World Report\n Richard Deth – voice in the autism and vaccine controversy\n Michael Dukakis – former Massachusetts State Governor and 1988 Democratic Presidential Candidate\n Matthias Felleisen – author of How to Design Programs\n William M. Fowler – historian, former director of the Massachusetts Historical Society\n James Alan Fox – authority on serial killers and hate crimes\n Alexander Gorlov – ASME Thomas A. Edison Award winner; inventor of the Gorlov helical turbine\n Gary Goshgarian – author, uses the pen name Gary Braver\n Nat Hentoff – Guggenheim Fellow, Fulbright Fellow\n M. Whitney Kelting\n Harlan Lane – MacArthur Foundation Genius Award winner\n Jack Levin – authority on serial killers and hate crimes\n Karl Lieberherr – computer scientist\nPeter K. Manning – authority on the occupational culture of policing\n Pran Nath – co-developer of the theory of supergravity\n Robert B. Parker – author of the "Spenser" novels\n Rupal Patel – speech scientist and founder of VOCALiD\n Justin B. Ries – marine scientist and inventor\n Walter V. Robinson – Pulitzer-winning journalist\nNada Sanders, Distinguished Professor of Supply Chain Management at the D’Amore-McKim School of Business\n Mikhail Shubin – member of the Russian Academy of Sciences and mathematician\n Justine Siegal – baseball coach and sports educator\n Mitchell Wand – author of Essentials of Programming Languages\n\nReferences\n\nNortheastern University people'},
 {'id': '50519954',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronaldo%20Mouchawar',
  'title': 'Ronaldo Mouchawar',
  'text': 'Ronaldo Mouchawar (), is a Syrian entrepreneur. In 2005, he co-founded Souq.com, the largest e-commerce retailer in the Arab World. When Amazon acquired Souq in 2017, Mouchewar became vice president of Amazon Middle East and North Africa. He is a veteran of Maktoob, the internet portal purchased by Yahoo in 2009. In 2005, he launched souq.com.\n\nEarly life and education\nRonaldo Mouchawar was born in Aleppo, in Syria. His father was a merchant, and this provided the inspiration for the name of the e-commerce site. Mouchawar is also a former basketball player of the Jalaa SC Aleppo.\n\nMouchawar holds a master\'s degree in digital communications and a bachelor\'s degree in electrical and computer engineering from Northeastern University in Boston, Massachusetts in the United States.  He spent the early years of his career with the Boston engineering firm working in technology and business management, including a role as technical and systems consultant at Electronic Data Systems (EDS).\n\nCareer\nMouchawar co-founded Souq.com in 2005 alongside Jabbar, Internet Group\'s Samih Toukan, and Hussam Khoury. He added products from fashion to electronics and homeware and the site became the largest e-commerce retailer in the Arab world.\n\n\'White Friday\' \n\nIn 2014, he established the White Friday sales event to coincide with Black Friday in the US, explaining that a "black" Friday doesn\'t make cultural sense in the Arab world, since Friday is the traditional day of prayer. The sale was widely popular as it raised over $275 million. In 2015 Souq.com more than doubled its sales during its second White Friday sale, with 13 million visitors and 600,000 items sold during 25–28 November across the UAE, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Egypt. Additionally it was involved in the exclusive release of the Huawei Honor 6 launch in Abu Dhabi.\n\nFunding and Amazon acquisition \n\nIn February 2016, Souq.com announced it had received $275m of funding, with a valuation above $1bn, the Arab world\'s largest ever funding deal, making the e-commerce retailer the region\'s first unicorn. In March 2017, it was made public that Amazon would be acquiring Souq.com. The sum of this deal was not initially disclosed, though an Amazon SEC filing later revealed that the total sum paid was $580m in cash. Today Mouchawar serves as VP of Amazon MENA.\n\nAwards\nRonaldo Mouchawar has received several professional awards both in UAE and overseas.\n2013: Gulf Business Industry Awards, CEO of the year in the IT/Technology category\n2015: Entrepreneur of the Year award (Retail)\n\nSee also\n List of Northeastern University people\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nAmazon to acquire Souq, a Middle East clone once valued at $1B, for $650M (TechCrunch)\n\nPeople from Aleppo\nNortheastern University alumni\nAmazon (company) people\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nLiving people\nSyrian businesspeople\nSyrian expatriates in the United Arab Emirates'},
 {'id': '2184531',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Arab%20Americans',
  'title': 'List of Arab Americans',
  'text': 'This is a list of Arab Americans. It includes prominent and notable Arab American individuals from various fields, such as business, science, entertainment, sports and fine arts.\n\nAcademia\n\nScience\nElias J. Corey, Lebanese, organic chemistry professor at Harvard University, winner of the 1990 Nobel Prize in Chemistry\n Ahmed Zewail, Damanhour-born Egyptian, scientist, known as the "father of femtochemistry", winner of the 1999 Nobel Prize in Chemistry\nMichael E. DeBakey, Lebanese, cardiovascular surgeon and researcher, 1963 Lasker Award laureate\nOmar M. Yaghi, Amman-born Jordanian, reticular chemistry pioneer; winner of the 2018 Wolf Prize in Chemistry\nMostafa El-Sayed, Egyptian, US National Medal of Science laureate;  nanoscience researcher; known for the spectroscopy rule named after him, the El-Sayed rule\nRiad Barmada , Aleppo - born Syrian , served as the president of the Illinois Orthopedic Society.\nEman Ghoneim, Minea-born Egyptian, space scientist in desert regions\n Farouk El-Baz, Zagazig-born Egyptian, space scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of the Moon\n Huda Zoghbi, Beirut-born Lebanese, physician and medical researcher who discovered the genetic cause of the Rett syndrome\n Huda Akil, Damascus-born Syrian, neuroscientist and medical researcher\n Yasmine Belkaid, Algiers-born Algerian, immunologist, professor and a senior investigator at the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases\n Mounir Laroussi, Sfax-born Tunisian, plasma physicist, pioneer of plasma medicine\n Hunein Maassab, Damascus-born Syrian, professor of epidemiology and the inventor of the live attenuated influenza vaccine\n Joanne Chory, Lebanese, plant biologist and geneticist \n Anthony Atala, Peruvian-born Lebanese, Director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine \n Noureddine Melikechi, Thénia-born, Atomic, Molecular, and Optical Physicist, member of the Mars Science Laboratory\n Michel T. Halbouty, Lebanese, geologist and geophysicist; pioneer in oil field research\n Adah al-Mutairi Saudi, inventor and scholar in nanotechnology and nanomedicine\n M. Amin Arnaout, Sidon-born Lebanese, nephrologist and biologist\n Essam Heggy, Libyan-born Egyptian, Planetary scientist\n Shadia Habbal, Homs-born Syrian, astronomer and physicist specialized in Space physics\n Miriam Merad, French-born Algerian, immunologist\n\nEngineering/Computer Science\nMohamed Atalla, Port Said-born Egyptian, engineer, inventor of MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor), pioneer in silicon semiconductors and security systems, founder of Atalla Corporation\n Charles Elachi, Rayak-born Lebanese, professor of electrical engineering and planetary science at Caltech and the former director of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory\n Fawwaz T. Ulaby Damascus-born Syrian, professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, former Vice President of Research for the University of Michigan; first Arab-American winner of the IEEE Edison Medal\nTaher ElGamal, Cairo-born Egyptian, cryptographer, inventor of the ElGamal discrete log cryptosystem and the ElGamal signature scheme\n Ali H. Nayfeh, Tulkarm-born Palestinian, mechanical engineer, the 2014 recipient of Benjamin Franklin Medal in mechanical engineering\n Dina Katabi, Damascus-born Syrian, Professor of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science at MIT and the director of the MIT Wireless Center.\nAbbas El Gamal, Cairo-born Egyptian, electrical engineer, educator and entrepreneur, the recipient of the 2012 Claude E. Shannon Award\nJohn Makhoul, Deirmimas-born Lebanese, computer scientist who works in the field of speech and language processing.\nJerrier A. Haddad, Syrian-Lebanese, computer engineer who worked with IBM.\n Oussama Khatib, Aleppo-born Syrian, roboticist and a professor of computer science \n Elias Zerhouni, Nedroma-born Algerian, former director of the National Institutes of Health\n Hassan Kamel Al-Sabbah, Nabatieh-born Lebanese, technology innovator. He received 43 patents.\n Mohammad S. Obaidat, Irbid-born Jordanian, computer science/engineering academic and scholar\nCharbel Farhat, Lebanese, Vivian Church Hoff Professor of Aircraft Structures; Director of the Army High Performance Computing Research Center; Chair of the Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Stanford University\nHany Farid, Egyptian, Professor of computer science at Dartmouth College, pioneer in Digital forensics \nAhmed Tewfik, Cairo-born Egyptian, electrical engineer, Professor and college administrator\nMunther A. Dahleh, Tulkarm-born Palestinian, Professor and Director at Massachusetts Institute of Technology\n\nHumanities\nIsmail al-Faruqi, Jaffa-born Palestinian, philosopher, professor\nFouad Ajami, Arnoun-born Lebanese, Professor of International Relations \nSaddeka Arebi, Tripoli-born Libyan, professor of anthropology at UC Berkeley\nMohammed Adam El-Sheikh, Sudanese, executive director of the Fiqh Council of North America \nSamih Farsoun, Haifa-born Palestinian, sociology professor at the American University\nPhilip Khuri Hitti, Shimlan-born Lebanese, historian of Arab culture and history \nPhilip S. Khoury, Lebanese, Ford International Professor of History and Associate Provost at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology \nLaura Nader, cultural anthropologist\nEdward Said, Jerusalem-born Palestinian, literary theorist and former professor at Columbia University\nNada Shabout, UK-born Palestinian-Iraqi, Professor of Art History at University of North Texas\n Naseer Aruri, Jerusalem-born Palestinian ,Chancellor Professor of Political Science at University of Massachusetts, Dartmouth\n Nadia Abu El Haj, Palestinian, Author & Professor of Anthropology at Barnard College and subject of a major tenure controversy case at Columbia University\n Ibrahim Abu-Lughod, Jaffa-born Palestinian, former Director of Graduate Studies at Northwestern University, father of Lila Abu-Lughod\n Lila Abu-Lughod, Palestinian, professor of Anthropology and Women\'s and Gender Studies at Columbia University\n Leila Farsakh, Jordan-born Palestinian, Professor of Political Science at the University of Massachusetts, Boston\n Samih Farsoun, Professor of sociology at American University and editor of Arab Studies Quarterly\n Nadia Hijab, Syria-born Palestinian, Journalist with Middle East Magazine and Senior Fellow at the Institute for Palestine Studies\n Rashid Khalidi, Palestinian, Professor of Modern Arab Studies at Columbia University\n Joseph Massad, Jordan-born Palestinian, Professor at Columbia University known for his work on nationalism and sexuality in the Arab world\n Hisham Sharabi, Jaffa-born Palestinian, Professor Emeritus of History \nUmar al-Mukhtar, Tobruk-born Libyan, Chair of Arab Culture at Georgetown University\n Rosemarie Said Zahlan, Egypt-born Palestinian, historian, journalist & author, sister of Edward Said\n Steven Salaita, Jordanian-Palestinian, former Professor of English at Virginia Tech, winner of Myers Outstanding Book Award for the Study of Human Rights 2007\n Majid Khadduri, Mosul-born Iraqi, academic and founder of the Paul H. Nitze School of Advanced International Studies Middle East Studies program\n Noura Erakat, Palestinian, human rights attorney and Assistant Professor at Rutgers University\n Thomas L. Saaty, Assyrian-Iraqi, University Professor at the University of Pittsburgh\n Nada Shabout, UK-born Palestinian-Iraqi, art historian and Assistant Professor at the University of North Texas\n Ella Shohat, professor, author and activist\n Saadi Simawe, Diwaniyah-born Iraqi, translator, novelist and teacher\n Donny George Youkhanna, Habbaniyah-born Iraqi, archaeologist, anthropologist, author, curator, and scholar, and a visiting professor at Stony Brook University in New York\nImad-ad-Dean Ahmad, teaches religion, science, and freedom at the University of Maryland, College Park; directs the Minaret of Freedom Institute\nMuhsin Mahdi, Karbala-born Iraqi, Islamologist and Arabist.\nTalal Asad, Medina-born Saudi, anthropologist at the CUNY Graduate Center.\n\nUniversity Presidents\nMitch Daniels, Syrian, President of Purdue University \nDonna Shalala, Lebanese, President of the University of Miami\nJoseph E. Aoun, Beirut-born Lebanese, president of Northeastern University\nRobert Khayat, Lebanese, chancellor of the University of Mississippi \nNido Qubein, Lebanese, president of High Point University \nDavid Adamany, Lebanese, former president of the Temple University\n\nBusiness\nSteve Jobs, half Syrian, head and co-founder of Apple\nTony Fadell, Polish-Lebanese, product development manager at Apple Inc., co-inventor of iPod and iPhone\nMohamed A. El-Erian, Egyptian, CEO and co-CIO of PIMCO \nAlec Gores, Israel-born Lebanese-Palestinian, founder of Gores Group; on the Forbes list of billionaires\nTom Gores, Israel-born Greek-Lebanese, founder and CEO of Platinum Equity; on the Forbes list of billionaires (Palestinian-born of Lebanese descent)\nSam Gores, Israel-born Lebanese-Palestinian, founder of talent agency Paradigm Agency; on the Forbes list of billionaires \nNajeeb Halaby, Lebanese-Syrian, former head of Federal Aviation Administration and CEO of Pan-American Airlines, and father of Queen Noor of Jordan\nRay R. Irani, Lebanon-born Palestinian, Chairman and CEO of Occidental Petroleum\nJoseph Jacobs, Australia-born Lebanese, founder of Jacobs Engineering, one of the engineering firms in the US\nCharif Souki, Cairo-born Egyptian, co-founder and former CEO of Cheniere Energy. \nAmin Khoury, businessman and founder of B/E Aerospace\nOmar Hamoui, Syrian, founder and CEO of Google AdMob (Syrian)\nLucie Salhany, Jordanian-Lebanese, former Chairwoman of Fox Broadcasting Company. \nMarcus Lemonis, Beirut-born Lebanese-Syrian, chairman and CEO of Camping World, Good Sam Enterprises and Gander Outdoors. \nGeorge Joseph, Lebanese, founder of Mercury Insurance Group. \nJoe Jamail, businessman who was the wealthiest practicing attorney in America. \nAllen Adham, Lebanese, co-founder of Blizzard Entertainment. \nMario Kassar, Beirut-born Lebanese-Italian, formerly headed Carolco Pictures\nJohn J. Mack, Lebanese, CEO of investment bank Morgan Stanley\nMaloof family, Lebanese family who owns numerous business properties in the Western United States, majority owners of the Sacramento Kings and the Palms Casino Hotel in Paradise, Nevada\nSam Moore, Beirut-born Lebanese, founder and president of Thomas Nelson Publishers, the largest worldwide distributor of the Bible\nManuel Moroun, Lebanese, owner of CenTra, Inc., the holding company which controls the Ambassador Bridge and Michigan Central Depot\nJacques Nasser, Amyoun-born Lebanese, former president and CEO of Ford Motor Company (Lebanese)\nMoose Scheib, Beirut-born Lebanese, founder and CEO of Loanmod.com; inventor of the modern day loan modification\nEfrem Harkham, Israel-born Iraqi-American, founder and CEO of LuxeHotels, owner of Luxe Rodeo Drive Hotel\nFarouk Shami, Ramallah-born Palestinian, founder of Farouk systems, a Houston-based company that manufactures hair care and spa products like CHI hair Irons\nJohn Zogby, Lebanese, founder and current President/CEO of Zogby International\nSam Yagan, Syrian, Entrepreneur and business executive, co-founder of SparkNotes, eDonkey, OkCupid, and Techstars Chicago, also CEO of Match Group, including Tinder \nRana el Kaliouby, Egyptian, computer scientist, CEO of Affectiva, Researcher at MIT Media Lab, contributor to facial expression recognition research and technology development\nHaim Saban, Egypt-born Israeli-American, television and media proprietor\nHuda Kattan, Iraqi, CEO of Huda Beauty\nMagid Abraham, Mashghara-born Lebanese, market research expert and businessman\nNahim Abraham, Kafarakab-born Lebanese, businessman, philanthropist\nPaul Orfalea, Lebanese, founder of Kinko\'s\n Richard E. Rainwater, Lebanese, investor and fund manager\n Robert Khuzami, Lebanese, former director of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission \n Thomas J. Barrack, Jr., Lebanese, businessman and founder of Colony Capital\n\nArts and entertainment\nSam Esmail, Egyptian, screenwriter, director and producer; creator of the television series Mr. Robot \nKevin Hanna, Syrian, writer, director and producer; creator of the film The Clockwork Girl \nCallie Khouri, Lebanese, Academy Award-winning screenwriter\nWilliam Peter Blatty,Lebanese, Academy Award-winning screenwriter and writer\nNessa Diab, Egyptian, Radio and TV personality and television host \nSanaa Hamri, Tangier-born Moroccan, music video and movie director; her films include the Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants 2 \nMoustapha Akkad, Syrian-American film producer and director\nCasey Kasem, Lebanese Druze, radio personality and voice actor, co-founder of American Top 40 franchise, \nGeorge Noory, Lebanese, radio broadcaster of late-night paranormal-themed radio talk show Coast to Coast AM\nMario Kassar, Beirut-born Lebanese, film producer, founder of Carolco Pictures\nJordan Nassar, half-Palestinian, visual artist working with Palestinian embroidery\nTom Shadyac, Lebanese, director, screenwriter and producer\nTony Thomas, Lebanese, producer\nJehane Noujaim, Lebanese-Egyptian, documentary film director\nKerri Kasem, Lebanese, radio personality\nDan Jbara, Lebanese, television and film producer\nDiane Rehm,Syrian-Lebanese, host and executive producer of The Diane Rehm Show on National Public Radio\nElie Samaha, Zahlé-born Lebanese, film producer\nSonya Tayeh, award-winning dancer and choreographer. \nEmile Kuri, Mexico-born Lebanese, Academy Award-winning art director\nZaida Ben-Yusuf, UK-born Algerian,portrait photographer\nSam Maloof, Lebanese furniture designer and woodworker\nRima Fakih, Srifa-born Lebanese, Miss USA 2010\nRemi Kanazi, Palestinian, performance poet\nYousef Abu-Taleb, Jordanian, actor, lonelygirl15; film producer\nAdam Saleh, Yemeni, YouTuber and singer\nCherien Dabis, Palestinian, film director\nYousef Erakat, Palestinian, YouTuber and actor\nGabbie Hanna, Lebanese, comedian, actress, YouTube personality, singer\n\nActors\nTony Shalhoub, Lebanese, three-time Emmy Award-winning television actor on Monk\nDanny Thomas, Lebanese, Emmy Award-winning actor, founder of St. Jude Children\'s Research Hospital; father of Marlo Thomas \nMarlo Thomas, Lebanese, Golden Globe and Emmy Award-winning actress\nRami Malek, Egyptian, Emmy Award and Academy Award - winning actor\nDemián Bichir, Mexico-born Lebanese, Academy Award-nominated actor\nVic Tayback, Syrian, two-time Golden Globe-winning actor\nKristy McNichol, Lebanese, two-time Emmy Award-winning actress \nTige Andrews, Syrian, Emmy-nominated actor\nMichael Ansara, Lebanon-born, actor\nSofia Boutella, Algerian, actress, model, and Hip-hop dancer\nGeorge Nader, Lebanese, American film and television actor.\nJenna Dewan, Lebanese, film/TV actress (Step Up)\nShannon Elizabeth, Syrian-Lebanese, film actress (American Pie, Scary Movie)\nKhrystyne Haje, Lebanese, actress on Head of the Class\nTeri Hatcher, Syrian, actress\nSalma Hayek, Mexico-born Lebanese, Mexican actress\nRowan Blanchard, Syrian, actress\nAnissa Jones,Lebanese, actress, Family Affair \nJamie Farr, Lebanese, character actor\nCatherine Keener, Lebanese, actress\nWendie Malick, Egyptian, actress\nAlanna Masterson, half Lebanese, actress,\nWentworth Miller, UK-born Lebanese-Syrian, actor on Prison Break\nNajee Mondalek, Lebanon-born, actor/playwright\nKathy Najimy, Lebanese, actress\nGregory Jbara, Lebanese, television and film actor\nAlia Shawkat, half-Iraqi, actress on Arrested Development\nJames Stacy, part-Lebanese, actor\nPaola Turbay, part-Lebanese, actress\nVince Vaughn, part-Lebanese, actor\nAmy Yasbeck, part-Lebanese, actress\nSammy Sheik, Alexandria-born Egyptian, actor\nOmar Metwally, half-Egyptian, actor\nWaleed Zuaiter, Palestinian, actor\nMo Gallini, half-Lebanese, actor\nMichael Nouri, half-Iraqi, actor\nHaaz Sleiman, Beirut-born Lebanese, television and film actor\nEmeraude Toubia, Canada-born part-Lebanese, actress\nEdy Ganem, half-Lebanese, actress\nNadia Dajani, half-Palestinian, actress\nRose Abdoo, half-Lebanese, comedian, actress\nJohn Kassir, American actor, voice actor and comedian.\nRamy Youssef, Egyptian, writer and star of Ramy\nZeeko Zaki, Egyptian, actor\n\nComedians\nBrian Awadis, Iraqi, Youtuber and actor\nJerry Seinfeld, half-Syrian Jewish, stand-up comedian, actor and writer\nDean Obeidallah, half-Palestinian, stand-up comedian, writer\nAhmed Ahmed, Helwan-born Egyptian, actor and comedian \nMohammed Amer, Kuwait-born Palestinian, comedian, writer, actor; Rolling Stone, Al Barnameg, Allah Made Me Funny \nRemy Munasifi, Iraqi-Lebanese, comedian also known as GoRemy\nAnwar Jibawi, Palestinian, YouTuber and comedian (Palestinian)\nRonnie Khalil, Egyptian, stand-up comedian\nAron Kader, half-Palestinian, stand-up comedian\nMaysoon Zayid, Palestinian, actress and comedian\nRay Hanania, Palestinian,  journalist and stand-up comedian\nKassem G, Amman-born Jordanian-Egyptian, comedian, actor, and YouTuber\n\nReality show\nFarrah Abraham, part-Syrian, reality television personality, participated in 16 and Pregnant and Teen Mom\nTareq Salahi, half-Palestinian, television personality, appeared on The Real Housewives of D.C.\nAdrienne Maloof, half-Lebanese, businesswoman, television personality, cast member of The Real Housewives of Beverly Hills\nAja (entertainer), Egyptian-Moroccan, known for competing on RuPaul\'s Drag Race\nLaith Al-Saadi, half-Iraqi, finalist on the 10th season of The Voice\nTarek El Moussa, part-Moroccan, businessman, television personality, cast member of Flip or Flop\n\nFashion designers\nJoseph Abboud, Lebanese, menswear fashion designer and author\nReem Acra, Beirut-born Lebanese, fashion designer\nNorma Kamali, Lebanese, fashion designer\nRami Kashou, Palestinian, fashion designer\n\nModels\nGigi Hadid, half-Palestinian, supermodel and TV personality\nBella Hadid, half-Palestinian, supermodel and TV personality\nTouriya Haoud, half-Moroccan, fashion model and actress\nWafah Dufour, half-Saudi, fashion model and singer\nJaclyn Stapp, Jordanian, beauty queen and fashion model\nAmy Fadhli, half-Iraqi, fitness model, actress and winner of the Fitness America National Champion 1996\n\nMusicians\nPaula Abdul, half-Syrian Jewish (considers herself Jewish and not ethnically Arab), singer, musician, writer, actress, and television personality \nPaul Anka, Lebanese, singer/songwriter\nFrank Zappa, part-Lebanese, musician\nDJ Khaled, Palestinian, hip-hop DJ, rapper, music producer\nRedOne, Tetouan-born Moroccan, producer, songwriter, music executive\nTiffany, born Tiffany Renee Darwish, half-Lebanese, singer\nTiny Tim (born Herbert Khaury), half-Lebanese, musician \nFrench Montana, Casablanca-born Moroccan, rapper\nPaul Jabara, Lebanese, actor, singer, songwriter\nDick Dale, half-Lebanese, surf rock guitarist\nAndrew Bazzi, half-Lebanese, singer-songwriter\nSoraya, part-Lebanese, singer/songwriter\nG.E. Smith, half-Lebanese, lead guitarist in the band Hall & Oates; musical director of Saturday Night Live\nDavid Yazbek, half-Lebanese, songwriter and musician\nRaef Haggag Egyptian, singer\nStephan Said, half-Iraqi, singer, musician, writer and activist\nKareem Salama, Maghrebi, country singer-songwriter and musician\nAlissa Musto, singer/pianist\nKurtis Mantronik, Jamaica-born half-Syrian, born Kurtis el Khaleel, remixer and producer, founding member of 1980s old school hip hop group Mantronix\nMalek Jandali, Germany-born Syrian, composer and pianist (Syrian-American)\nFerras, half-Jordanian, singer-songwriter\nFredwreck, Palestinian, hip hop producer\nMohammed Fairouz, musician, composer\nEmilio Estefan, Cuba-born half-Lebanese, manager and producer of wife Gloria Estefan\nAyad Al Adhamy, Bahraini-born, synthesizer player and multi-instrumentalist musician\nJeff Becerra, death metal musician\nRon Affif, half-Lebanese, jazz guitarist and musician\nJack Barakat, Lebanese, All Time Low guitarist/songwriter\nQueen Naija, half-Yemeni, singer and songwriter\nDave Hall, Quarter-Lebanese, singer/songwriter and composer\n\nLiterature\nKhalil Gibran, Bsharri-born Lebanese, writer, poet, and member of the New York Pen League; the third-best-selling poet of all time. \nWilliam Peter Blatty, Lebanese, writer best known for his 1971 horror novel The Exorcist \nLaila Lalami, Rabat-born Moroccan, Pulitzer Prize-nominated novelist, journalist, essayist, and professor\nMikhail Naimy, Baskinta-born Lebanese, member of the New York Pen League; well-known works include The Book of Mirdad and a biography of Khalil Gibran\nAmeen Rihani, Syria-born Lebanese, "father of Arab American literature," member of the New York Pen League and author of The Book of Khalid, the first Arab American novel in English;\nEdward Said, Jerusalem-born Palestinian, literary theorist, thinker, and the founder of the academic field of postcolonial studies. \nStephen Adly Guirgis, half-Egyptian, Pulitzer Prize-winning playwright\nHisham Matar, Libyan, Pulitzer Prize-winning writer\nSteven Naifeh, Iran-born half-Lebanese, Pulitzer Prize-winning author\nRaymond Khoury, Beirut-born Lebanese, screenwriter and novelist, best known as the author of the 2006 New York Times bestseller The Last Templar\nSaladin Ahmed, Lebanese-Egyptian, Eisner Award-winning comic book and fantasy writer\nTed Naifeh, comic book writer and artist.\nStephen Karam, Lebanese, Tony Award-winning playwright and screenwriter\nMona Simpson, half-Syrian, novelist; author of Anywhere but Here\nElmaz Abinader, Lebanese, poet, playwright, memoirist, writer\nDiana Abu-Jaber, half-Jordanian, novelist and professor, author of Arabian Jazz and Crescent \nNasib Arida, Homs-born Syrian, poet and writer of the Mahjar movement.\nAbd al-Masih Haddad, Homs-born Syrian, writer of the Mahjar movement and journalist\nElia Abu Madi, Bikfaya-born Lebanese, poet, publisher and member of the New York Pen League\nEtel Adnan, Lebanon-born half-Syrian, poet, essayist, and visual artist\nSuheir Hammad, Jordan-born Palestinian, poet, playwright, artist, Tony Award winner\nSamuel John Hazo, half-Lebanese, State Poet of Pennsylvania\nLawrence Joseph, Syrian-Lebanese, poet\nLisa Suhair Majaj, Palestinian, poet and literary scholar\nKhaled Mattawa, Benghazi-born Libyan, poet, recipient of an Academy of American Poets award\nClaire Messud, half-Algerian, author\nNaomi Shihab Nye, half-Palestinian, poet\nAbraham Rihbany, Shweir-born Lebanese, writer on politics and religion\nSteven Salaita, Jordanian-Palestinian, expert on comparative literature and post-colonialism, writer, activist\nIbtisam Barakat, Jerusalem-born Palestinian, award-winning writer and poet\nReem Kassis, Jerusalem-born Palestinianwriter on food, culture and politics (Palestinian)\n\nMedia and journalism\nHelen Thomas, Lebanese, reporter, columnist, and White House correspondent \nHala Gorani, Syrian, journalist and anchor of CNN\'s International Desk; Levantine Cultural Center\nAnthony Shadid, Lebanese, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist, foreign correspondent\nHoda Kotb, Egyptian, broadcast journalist and TV host on Dateline NBC and the Today Show \nJim Avila, half-Lebanese, correspondent for ABC News "20/20",\nJamal Dajani, Jerusalem-born Palestinian television producer and Middle East analyst\nPaula Faris, half Lebanese television correspondent and personality\nRay Hanania, Palestinian, award-winning journalist; Managing Editor of The Arab Daily News; President and CEO of Urban Strategies Group media and political consultants\nDiane Rehm, American public radio talk show host\nDena Takruri, Palestinian, journalist, on-air presenter, and producer\nFawaz Gerges, Beirut-born Lebanese, ABC analyst and regular guest on "Oprah\'s Anti-war series" \nYasmeen Sami Alamiri, Iraqi, journalist, first member of the White House foreign press pool\nSusan Chira, Syrian, journalist, former New York Times editor, foreign correspondent\nLorraine Ali, Iraqi, reporter, editor, culture writer and music critic for Newsweek \nSusie Gharib, co-anchor of the Nightly Business Report\nWalid Phares, Batroun-born Lebanese, Fox News correspondent, Middle Eastern policy advisor to the 2012 Mitt Romney presidential campaign and the 2016 Donald Trump presidential campaign\nPaul Ajlouny, Ramallah-born Palestinian, founder of the Palestinian newspaper Al-Fajr\nDaoud Kuttab, Bethlehem-born Palestinian, award-winning journalist; Ferris Professor of Journalism at Princeton University \nNasser Weddady Mauritanian, activist, Director of Civil Rights Outreach at American Islamic Congress\nMona Eltahawy, Port Said-born Egyptian, freelance journalist\nAyman Mohyeldin, Cairo-born Palestinian-Egyptian, journalist for NBC News \nSerena Shim, Lebanese, journalist for Press TV\n\nMilitary\nJohn Abizaid, Lebanese\nAhmed Qusai al-Taayie, Iraqi-born, specialist in the United States Army who was kidnapped by insurgents in Baghdad, Iraq, on October 23, 2006\nFlorent Groberg, France-born part-Algerian\nJames Jabara, Lebanese\nGeorge Joulwan, Lebanese\nPeter Mansoor\nMichael A. Monsoor, part-Lebanese, first Arab American Medal of Honor awardee\nRay Hanania, Palestinian, Vietnam Era Military Service, U.S. Air Force\n\nPolitics\nJames Abdnor, U.S. Senator (R-South Dakota) (1981–1987)\nJohn Abizaid, Lebanese, retired general\nJames Abourezk, Lebanese, U.S. Senator (D-South Dakota) (1973–1979)\nSpencer Abraham, Lebanese, U.S. Secretary of Energy (2001–2005) and U.S. Senator (R-Michigan) Secretary of Energy under Bush (1995–2001) \nJustin Amash, Syrian-Palestinian, U.S. Representative (R-Michigan) (2011–2021)\nVictor G. Atiyeh, Syrian-Lebanese, former Governor of Oregon (R) (1979–1987) \nJohn Baldacci, half-Lebanese, Governor of Maine (D) (2003–2011)\nRosemary Barkett, Mexico-born Syrian, U.S. Circuit Judge and the first woman Supreme Court Justice and Chief Justice for the state of Florida\nCharles Boustany, Lebanese, U.S. Representative from Louisiana; cousin of Victoria Reggie Kennedy\nCharlie Crist, part Lebanese, former Governor of Florida (R) (2007–2011), U.S. Congressman (D-Florida) (2017–present)\nPat Danner, Lebanese, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Mo.) (1993–2001)\nBrigitte Gabriel, Marjayoun-born Lebanese, pro-Israel activist and founder of the American Congress For Truth\nPhilip Charles Habib, Lebanese, Under Secretary of State for Political Affairs and Special Envoy to Ronald Reagan\nLisa Halaby, Syrian-Lebanese,(a.k.a. Queen Noor), Queen-consort of Jordan and wife of King Hussein of Jordan\nDarrell Issa, half-Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (R-California) (2001–) \nJoe Jamail, Lebanese, Renown American trial lawyer and billionaire, also known as the "King of Torts"\nJames Jabara, Lebanese, colonel and Korean War flying ace \nChris John, part-Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (D-Louisiana) (1997–2005) \nGeorge Joulwan, part-Syrian, retired general, former NATO commander-in-chief \nGeorge Kasem, Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (D-California) (1959-1961)\nAbraham Kazen, Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (D-Texas) (1967–1985)\nJill Kelley, Beirut-born Lebanese, global advocate and American socialite \nVictoria Reggie Kennedy, Lebanese, attorney and widow of late Senator Ted Kennedy \nJohnny Khamis, Palestinian, Council member from San Jose \nRay LaHood, half-Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (1995–2009), U.S. Secretary of Transportation (2009–2013)\nDarin LaHood, part-Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (R-Illinois) (2015–), son of Ray Lahood\nGeorge J. Mitchell, half-Lebanese, U.S. Senator (D-Maine) (1980–1995) US special envoy to the Middle East under the Obama administration, U.S. senator from Maine, Senate Majority Leader \nRalph Nader, Lebanese, politician and consumer advocate, author, lecturer, and attorney, candidate for US Presidency\nJimmy Naifeh, Lebanese, Speaker of the Tennessee House of Representatives (D) \nMary Rose Oakar, Lebanese-Syrian, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Ohio) (1977–1993)\nJeanine Pirro, Lebanese, former Westchester County District Attorney and New York Republican attorney general candidate \nDina Powell, Cairo-born Egyptian, current U.S. Deputy National Security Advisor for Strategy \nEdward Rafeedie, Palestinian, U.S. District Judge for the Central District of California \nNick Rahall, Lebanese, U.S. Congressman (D-West Virginia) (1977–2015) \nSelwa Roosevelt, Lebanese, former Chief of Protocol of the United States and wife of the late Archibald Bulloch Roosevelt, Jr., grandson of President Theodore Roosevelt\n Zainab Salbi, Baghdad-born Iraqi, co-founder and president of Women for Women International \nDonna Shalala, Lebanese, U.S. Secretary of Health and Human Services (1993–2001)\nChris Sununu, Lebanese-Palestinian, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (2017–), son of Governor John H. Sununu\nJohn E. Sununu, Lebanese-Palestinian, U.S. Senator (R-New Hampshire) (2003–2009)\nJohn H. Sununu, Cuba-born Lebanese-Palestinian, Governor of New Hampshire (R) (1983–1989) and Chief of Staff to George H.W. Bush \nRashida Tlaib, Palestinian, U.S. Congresswoman (D-Michigan)(2016-) \nJames Zogby, half-Lebanese, founder and president of the Arab American Institute\nHady Amr, Beirut-born Lebanese, diplomat, founding director of Brookings Doha Center (Lebanese father)\n\nSports\nToni Breidinger, half-Lebanese, NASCAR driver, First Female Arab in the sport \nAlaa Abdelnaby, Alexandria-born Egyptian, played for Duke and five years in the NBA \nRony Seikaly, Beirut-born Lebanese, former NBA player, now DJ\nAbdel Nader, Alexandria-born Egyptian, player for the Oklahoma City Thunder of the National Basketball Association \nSalah Mejri, Oued Melliz-born Tunisian professional basketball for the Dallas Mavericks of the National Basketball Association.\nJustin Abdelkader, part-Jordanian, ice hockey forward playing in NHL\nBrandon Saad, half-Syrian, NHL player \nPatrick Maroon, Lebanese, ice hockey player for the Edmonton Oilers in the NHL\n Johnny Manziel, part-Lebanese, NFL player\nOday Aboushi, Palestinian, NFL player \nDoug Flutie, half-Lebanese, NFL player \nDrew Haddad, Jordanian, NFL player \nGibran Hamdan, half-Palestinian, NFL QB \nBill George, NFL player and Hall of Fame.\nJeff George, Lebanese, NFL quarterback\nRich Kotite, retired NFL tight end; NFL Head coach for the Philadelphia Eagles and New York Jets\n Abe Mickal – Talia-born Lebanese, football player for LSU\n Matt Kalil – half-Lebanese, NFL player \n Ryan Kalil – NFL player (Lebanese father)\n Frank Kalil – former American football offensive lineman. \nAdam Shaheen, tight end from Ashland\nJoe Robbie, former owner and founder of the NFL\'s Miami Dolphins\nRocco Baldelli professional baseball player (Syrian) \nJohn Jaha, MLB baseball player (Lebanese)\nSam Khalifa, MLB baseball player (Egyptian)\nJoe Lahoud, MLB player for Boston an California (Lebanese descent)\nMikie Mahtook, Major League Baseball outfielder (Lebanese descent)\nDamien Sandow, WWE wrestler (Lebanese)\nSabu ECW wrestler (Lebanese mother)\nSkandor Akbar former professional wrestler (Lebanese)\nEd Farhat Lebanese-American professional wrestler best known by his ring name The Sheik\nAdnan Al-Kaissie former professional wrestler and manager (Iraqi) \nArmando Estrada professional wrestler and manager ( Palestinian) \nMojo Rawley professional wrestler currently signed to WWE ( Palestinian and Syrian) \nDina Al-Sabah, professional figure competitor (Kuwaiti descent)\nSarah Attar track and field athlete (Saudi Arabian father) \nIsra Girgrah, boxer\nNaseem Hamed, commonly known as Prince Naseem or Naz, former boxer, former featherweight world champion. (Yemni parents)\nJim Harrick, UCLA coach\nOmar Hassan, pro skateboarder\nAhmed Kaddour professional boxer, from NBC show The Contender (Lebanese)\nHocine Khalfi, professional boxer, Algerian-American\nKhalid Khannouchi, athlete marathon runner (Moroccan)\n Amir Khillah, mixed martial artist and The Ultimate Fighter contestant (Egyptian)\nGavin Maloof, businessman and owner of the Sacramento Kings\nGeorge Maloof, Sr. businessman and former owner of the NBA\'s Houston Rockets\nJustin Meram, MLS player for Columbus Crew (Chaldo-Assaryian)\nFaryd Mondragón, MLS player for Philadelphia Union (Lebanese parents)\nRamsey Nijem (Palestinian), mixed martial artist and UFC fighter\nBobby Rahal (Lebanese ancestry)\nSoony Saad, MLS player (Lebanese descent)\nRobert Saleh, defensive coordinator for the San Francisco 49ers (Lebanese Mother). \nTarick Salmaci, professional boxer (Lebanese)\n Omar Sheika (Palestinian), professional boxer, four-time world title challenger\nKelly Slater, professional surfer (Lebanese descent)\nMuhammad Halim, (Palestinian father)\n\nOthers\n Naser Jason Abdo, former soldier convicted of planning an attack near Fort Hood\n Sami Al-Arian, professor guilty of conspiracy to contribute services to or for the benefit of a Specially Designated Terrorist organization (Palestinian)\nAnwar al-Awlaki, believed by US officials to be a recruiter involved in planning terrorist operations for the Islamist militant group al-Qaeda (Yemeni)\nNihad Awad, founding Executive Director of largest Muslim civil rights organization in the U.S., Council on American Islamic Relations (CAIR) (Palestinian)\nRosemary Barkett, federal judge and first woman Justice and Chief Justice on the Florida Supreme Court (Syrian)\nCharles Bishop, suicide by plane crash in Tampa, Florida; grandson of Syrian immigrant\nNidal Hasan, former soldier convicted of the 2009 Fort Hood shooting (Palestinian descent)\nHussein Ibish, writer, journalist, advocate for Arab causes in the United States (Lebanese)\nCandice Lightner, founder of MADD (Lebanese mother)\nEdward L. Masry, lawyer (Lebanese descent)\n Rasmea Odeh, convicted of immigration fraud, for concealing her arrest, conviction, and imprisonment for fatal terrorist bombing (Palestinian)\nWalid Rabah, publisher\nSaint Raphael of Brooklyn, first Orthodox bishop to be consecrated in North America; born Raphael Hawaweeny in Beirut of Damascene Syrian parents\nKarim Rashid (Lebanese descent)\nZainab Salbi, co-founder and president of Women for Women International (Iraqi)\n Sirhan Sirhan, convicted murderer of Robert F. Kennedy (Palestinian with Jordanian citizenship)\nNadya Suleman, "Octomom", father is Iraqi\nJames Zogby, Arab-American civil rights activist (Arab-American Institute); brother of John (Lebanese descent)\nJohn Zogby, pollster for Zogby International (Lebanese descent)\n\nSee also\nList of Iraqi Americans\nList of Lebanese Americans\nList of Palestinian Americans\nSyrian Americans\nYemeni-American\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n I Want My Son to be Proud by Casey Kasem\n Famous Arab Americans\n Children of Al-Mahjar: Arab American Literature Spans a Century – by Elmaz Abinader\n\nArab-American\nAmericans\n \nArab'},
 {'id': '21014018',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Clinger%20%28computer%20scientist%29',
  'title': 'William Clinger (computer scientist)',
  'text': "William D. Clinger is an associate professor in the Khoury College of Computer Sciences at Northeastern University. He is known for his work on higher-order and functional programming languages, and for extensive contributions in helping create and implement international technical standards for the programming language Scheme via the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and American National Standards Institute (ANSI). Clinger was an editor of the second through fifth Revised Reports on Scheme (R2RS – R5RS), and an invited speaker on Scheme at the Lisp50 conference celebrating the 50th birthday of the language Lisp. He has been on the faculty at Northeastern University since 1994.\n\nResearch\nClinger obtained his PhD from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) under the supervision of Carl Hewitt. His doctoral research revolved around defining a denotational semantics for the actor model of concurrent computing, which is the same model of computing that originally motivated development of Scheme.\n\nIn addition to editing the R2RS – R5RS Scheme standards, Clinger's contributions to Scheme have included the development of compilers for two implementations of the language: MacScheme, and Larceny. He also invented efficient algorithms for hygienic macro expansion, accurate decimal-to-binary conversions, and bounded-latency generational garbage collection.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nLiving people\nAmerican computer programmers\nAmerican computer scientists\nNortheastern University faculty\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology alumni"},
 {'id': '68330637',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupal%20Patel%20%28scientist%29',
  'title': 'Rupal Patel (scientist)',
  'text': "Rupal Patel is a professor at Northeastern University Bouvé College of Health Sciences, USA in the area of speech science, audiology and information science. She is the director of the university's Communication Analysis and Design Laboratory.\n\nEducation\nPatel gained her B. Sc. degree in neuropsychology from University of Calgary, graduating in 1993. She undertook further study at University of Toronto and gained her doctorate in the subject of speech language pathology in 2000.\n\nCareer \nIn 2003 she was appointed as an assistant professor at Northeastern University, and was promoted to professor in 2014. Her post is jointly between the university's Bouvé College of Health Sciences and Khoury College of Computer Sciences, reflecting her research. This has concentrated on the acquisition and impairment of speech, specifically prosody, in healthy speakers and those with neuromotor disorders. This has led to the very practical design of speech enhancement and learning technologies to generate naturalistic synthetic voices for those with speech disorders by making use of their residual speaking ability.\n\nSince the mid 2000s she has led development of computer systems that can generate a naturalistic synthetic voice. This resulted from her work on speech analysis. Those with speech disorders can often produce a sound, but cannot shape it into speech with their mouths. Her research group developed a computer system that allowed speech to be different for each individual based on their natural sound. The pitch, loudness, breathiness and clarity of normal speech was generated by applying the computer system to a recording of a sample of the sound the individual was able to produce. By 2013 she could produce synthetic voices in the laboratory.\n\nShe founded the spin-out company VOCALiD in 2014 and has continued development of the machine learning and speech blending used for generating the synthetic voices. By the early 2020s the systems were able to reproduce existing voices as well as synthesise new ones. One use was for voice actors to be able to have an exact copy, or clone, of their voice to use in their work.\n\nPublications\nPatel is the author or co-author of over 60 scientific publications or book chapters. In 2013 she was invited to present a TED talk about Synthetic voices, as unique as fingerprints.\n\nReferences\n\n \n\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nLiving people\nUniversity of Calgary alumni\nUniversity of Toronto alumni\nNortheastern University faculty\nSpeech production researchers\nSpeech and language pathologists\nApplied linguists\nPhonologists\nCanadian women in business"},
 {'id': '782581',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Lebanese%20people',
  'title': 'List of Lebanese people',
  'text': 'This is a list of notable individuals born and residing mainly in Lebanon.\n\nLebanese expatriates residing overseas and possessing Lebanese citizenship are also included.\n\nActivists\nLydia Canaan – activist, advocate, public speaker, and United Nations delegate\nJill Kelley – advocate, socialite, and former diplomat\n\nArts and entertainment\n\nBeauty pageant winners\nMaya Reaidy – Miss Lebanon 2018\nPerla Helou – Miss Lebanon 2017\nValerie Abou Chacra — Miss Lebanon 2015\nDina Azar – Miss Lebanon 1995\nRina Chibany – Miss Lebanon 2012\nRima Fakih – Miss USA 2010\nSonia Fares – Miss Lebanon 1969\nNadine Wilson Njeim – Miss Lebanon 2007\nNadine Nassib Njeim – Miss Lebanon 2004\nGabrielle Bou Rached – Miss Lebanon 2005\nGeorgina Rizk – Miss Lebanon 1970/Miss Universe 1971\nChristina Sawaya – Miss Lebanon 2001/Miss International 2002\nRosarita Tawil – Miss Lebanon 2008\nDominique Hourani – Miss Intercontinental\n\nDancers\n Myriam Klink\n Annabella Hillal\n Lamitta Frangieh\n\nFashion designers\nGeorges Chakra – fashion designer\nHoussein Bazaza – fashion designer\nNicolas Jebran – fashion designer\nRabih Kayrouz – fashion designer\nZuhair Murad – fashion designer\nElie Saab – fashion designer\nTony Ward – fashion designer\n  Reem Acra – fashion designer\n\nFilm, television, and radio personalities\nHicham Abou Sleiman – actor\nNadine Labaki – film director\nPhilippe Aractingi – Lebanese-French film director\nJihad Al-Atrash – actor\nMaroun Bagdadi – film director\nRowan Blanchard – American actress\nMarcel Ghanem – television anchor \nSami Daher – actor\nGeorge Diab – actor\nZiad Doueiri – film director\nImad Feghaly – actor\nRenee Ghosh – actress\nAbdo Hakim – actor\nHasan Hamdan – actor\nJamal Hamdan – actor\nSaad Hamdan – actor\nDiana Ibrahim – actress\nMuhammad Ibrahim – actor\nCharbel Iskandar – actor\nLeïla Karam – actress\nMona Karim – actress\nMario Kassar – filmmaker, founder of Carolco Pictures\nAlek Keshishian – filmmaker of Lebanese-Armenian origin\nGeorges Khabbaz – actor\nArsinée Khanjian – actress of Lebanese-Armenian origin \nSamir Maalouf – actor\nToni Maalouf – actor\nMahmoud Mabsout – actor\nPeter Macdissi – television and film actor\nOmar Mikati – actor\nPatrick Mubarak – actor\nIsmail Nanoua – actor\nSamara Nohra – actress\nGeorge Noory – television, author, radio\nNour – film actress\nOuday Raad – actor\nBashar Rahal – Lebanese-Bulgarian actor\nKeanu Reeves – Canadian actor \nFadi Rifai – actor\nMilad Rizk – actor\nAli Saad – actor\nHossam Al-Sabah – actor\nKhaled El Sayed – actor\nNaji Shamil – actor\nOmar Al-Shammaa – actor\nHaaz Sleiman – television and film actor\nRosie Al-Yaziji – actress\nAli Al-Zein – actor\n\nSingers, composers, and musicians\nMelhem Zein  – singer\nAlain Merheb\nRagheb Alama – singer\nJulia Boutros – singer\nNancy Ajram – singer\nDjsky – electronic musician\nFairuz – singer\nRamy Ayach – singer and composer\nAssi El Hallani – singer\nNajwa Karam – singer\nWael Kfoury – singer\nMarcel Khalife – singer and composer\nMassari – singer\nZaki Nassif – composer, singer\nRahbani brothers – composers\nAssi Rahbani\nMansour Rahbani\nZiad Rahbani – musician, actor\nMajida El Roumi – singer\nSabah – singer, actress\nWadih El Safi – singer, composer, and musician\nCarole Samaha – singer\nNasri Shamseddine – singer\nWalid Toufic – singer\nNawal Al Zoghbi – singer\n\nTheatre\nHassan Alaa Eddin – commonly known as Chouchou or Shoushou, actor, comedian\nJalal Khoury – playwright, theatre director, comedian and artistic editor\n\nVisual artists\nEtel Adnan – painter, poet\nFaouzi Al-Kach – artist\nJoseph Assaf – sculptor\nChaouki Chamoun – painter\nDouglas Abdell – sculptor\nMoustafa Farroukh – painter\nChawky Frenn – painter and art professor\nCésar Gemayel – painter\nYoussef Howayek – sculptor and painter\nWajih Nahlé – painter and calligrapher\nWalid Raad – artist\nPierre Sadek – caricaturist\nAkram Zaatari – filmmaker, photographer, artist and curator\n\nArchitecture\nNabil Gholam – architect\nSalim Al-Kadi – architect and designer\nJoseph Philippe Karam – architect\nNadim Karam – architect\nBernard Khoury – architect\n\nBusiness\nSamir Brikho – businessman, Chief Executive of AMEC\nCharles Corm (1894–1963) – writer, industrialist\nWalid Daouk – businessman and politician\nRalph Debbas – automotive executive\nSam Hammam – owner of Cardiff City F.C.\nNicolas Hayek – owner of Swatch Group\nCarlos Ghosn – former CEO of Michelin North America, Chairman and CEO of Renault, Chairman of AvtoVAZ, Chairman and CEO of Nissan, and Chairman of Mitsubishi Motors\nCarlos Slim – investor, formerly the richest person in the world\n\nEducation\nJoseph E. Aoun – President of Northeastern University\nAlberto Bustani – former president of Monterrey Campus of Monterrey Institute of Technology and Higher Education\nGabriel Hawawini – former Head and Dean of INSEAD\n\nJournalism\nDaizy Gedeon – former deputy foreign editor and first female sports journalist (The Australian)\nJad Al-Akhaoui – television and newspaper journalist\nMay Chidiac – television journalist\nMarcel Ghanem – television journalist\nOctavia Nasr – former television journalist for CNN\nRamzi Najjar – journalist and author\nGebran Tueni – founder of An-Nahar\nGebran Ghassan Tueni – Lebanese journalist and politician \nGhassan Tueni – Lebanese journalist, politician and diplomat\nAdnan Al Kakoun – journalist/producer/director\nGeorge Yammine – literature and arts critic of An-Nahar\n\nMilitary\nEmile Boustany – former army commander\nJean Kahwaji – former army commander\nSamir El-Khadem – former commander of the Lebanese Naval Forces, author, historian\nÉmile Lahoud – former army commander\nJamil Al Sayyed – former Lebanese General Security Director\nWafiq Jizzini – former Lebanese General Security Director\nAbbas Ibrahim – Lebanese General Security Director\nJean Njeim – former army commander\nIbrahim Tannous – former army commander\nJoseph Aoun – army commander\n\nReligion\nA series of Catholic popes from the Levant (also known as Syrian popes or popes of Eastern Origin) include: Pope Anicetus, Pope Constantine, Pope Gregory III, Pope Sergius I and Pope Sisinnius.\n\nReligious personalities\nMaronite patriarchs\nEstephan El Douaihy – former Maronite Patriarch (1670–1704)\nElias Peter Hoayek – former Maronite Patriarch (1898–1931)\nAnthony Peter Khoraish – former Maronite Patriarch (1975–1986)\nBechara Boutros al-Rahi – Maronite Patriarch (2011–)\nNasrallah Boutros Sfeir – former Maronite Patriarch (1986–2011)\n\nMuslim scholars\nMusa al-Sadr – Shiite religious leader\nMuhammad Jamaluddin al-Makki al-Amili – Shi\'a scholar (1334–1385) \nNur-al-Din al-Karaki al-ʿĀmilī (1465-1534) – Shiite scholar who was a member of the Safavid court\nAl-Hurr al-Aamili – muhaddith and a prominent Twelver Shi\'a scholar (1624–1693)\nBahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī – Shi\'a Islamic scholar (1547–1621)\nMohammad Hussein Fadlallah – Shiite cleric (1935–2010)\nHassan Khaled – Sunni cleric, Mufti of the Lebanese Republic (1966–1989)\n\nOthers\nAram I Keshishian – Catholicos of the Armenian Apostolic Church, See of the Great House of Cilicia (in Antelias, Lebanon)\nSalim Ghazal – Melkite Greek Catholic bishop (1931–2011)\n\nSaints\nCharbel Makhlouf\nNimatullah Kassab\nRafqa Pietra Choboq Ar-Rayès\nRaphael Hawawini\n\nPoliticians\n\nPresidents of Lebanon\nMichel Aoun – current president (2016–present)\nCamille Chamoun – former president (1952–1958)\nFuad Chehab – former president (1958–1964)\nÉmile Eddé – former president (1936–1941)\nSuleiman Frangieh – former president (1970–1976)\nAmine Gemayel – former president (1982–1988)\nBachir Gemayel – former president-elect (1982-murdered)\nCharles Helou – former president (1964–1970)\nElias Hrawi – former president (1989–1998)\nBechara El Khoury – former president (1943–1952)\nÉmile Jamil Lahoud – former president (1998–2007)\nRené Moawad – former president (1989-murdered)\nElias Sarkis – former president (1976–1982)\nMichel Sleiman – former president (2008–2014)\nPetro Trad – former president (1943)\n\nSpeakers of Parliament\nNabih Berri – current Speaker of Parliament\nKamel Asaad – former Speaker of Parliament\nSabri Hamadé – former Speaker of Parliament\nHussein el-Husseini – former Speaker of Parliament\nAdel Osseiran – former Speaker of Parliament\n\nPrime Ministers of Lebanon\nAhmad Daouk – former Prime Minister\nAmin al-Hafez – former Prime Minister\nRafic Hariri – former Prime Minister\nSaad Hariri – former Prime Minister\nSelim al-Hoss – former Prime Minister\nOmar Karami – former Prime Minister\nRashid Karami – former Prime Minister\nNajib Mikati – former Prime Minister\nSaeb Salam – former Prime Minister\nTammam Salam – former Prime Minister\nFouad Siniora – former Prime Minister\nRiad as-Solh – former Prime Minister\nSami as-Solh – former Prime Minister\nTakieddin el-Solh – former Prime Minister\nShafik Wazzan – former Prime Minister\nAbdallah El-Yafi – former Prime Minister\nChafic Al Wazzan - Former Prime Minister\nHussain Alouieni - Former Prime Minister\nOmar Karami - Former Prime Minister\nHassan Diab - Former Prime Minister\n\nPolitical personalities\nMarwan Hamadeh – former minister (6 times) and part of the Lebanese Parliament since 1992, politician and influential presence\nEmir Majid Arslan – Lebanese independence leader\nPrince Talal Arslan – Druze leader and president of the Lebanese Democratic Party\nGebran Bassil – minister, Free Patriotic Movement\nDany Chamoun – former National Liberal Party leader\nDory Chamoun – National Liberal Party leader\nKhaled Daouk – former Honorary Consul General of Ireland in Beirut\nWalid Daouk – former minister of Information and Justice\nCarlos Edde – politician\nRaymond Edde – politician, former leader of National Bloc\nIssam Fares – businessman and politician, former Deputy Prime Minister\nSuleiman Frangieh, Jr. – politician, leader of the Marada Movement\nTony Frangieh – politician\nMaurice Gemayel – founder of Institute for Palestine Studies\nPierre Gemayel – politician and founder of the Kataeb Party\nPierre Amine Gemayel – legislator and minister\nSamir Geagea – leader of the Lebanese Forces\nKamal Jumblatt – founder of Progressive Socialist Party\nWalid Jumblatt – politician, leader of the Progressive Socialist Party\nSobhi Mahmassani – legal scholar, former deputy and minister \nCharles Malik – former president of the United Nations General Assembly and Minister of Foreign Affairs\nNayla Moawad – politician\nElias Murr – former deputy prime minister\nGabriel Murr – politician; owner of Murr Television and Mount Lebanon Radio Station\nMichel Murr – politician and former Deputy Prime Minister\nHassan Nasrallah – leader of Hezbollah\nSalim Saadeh – economist and politician\nHabib Sadek – former politician, writer\nGebran Tueni – journalist and deputy\n\nOther political personalities\nAlain Aoun – nephew of President Michel Aoun\nJoyce Gemayel – former first lady and political activist\nGhassan Tueni – diplomat, politician and journalist\n\nSciences\n\nMedicine\nAfif Abdul Wahab – surgeon\nM. Amin Arnaout – Lebanese-American Physician-scientist and nephrologist best known for seminal discoveries in the biology and structure of integrin receptors\nAmin J. Barakat – Lebanese-American physician known for the diagnosis Barakat syndrome\nAnthony Atala – Director of the Wake Forest Institute for Regenerative Medicine\nEdma Abouchdid – physician; first Lebanese woman to obtain a doctorate of medicine\nSami Ibrahim Haddad – physician, surgeon and writer\nMichael Debakey – renowned Lebanese-American Cardiovascular Surgeon who pioneered many surgical techniques and procedures\n\nScientists\nAli Chamseddine – physicist known for his contributions in particle physics, general relativity and mathematical physics\nBahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī – Islamic scholar, philosopher, architect, mathematician, astronomer and poet\nCharles Elachi – astronomer and professor of electrical engineering, former director of Jet Propulsion Laboratory and vice president of Caltech\nEdgar Choueiri – Physicist known for his work on Plasma propulsion engine and for conceiving and developing new spacecraft propulsion concepts\nGhassan Afiouni – inventor, developed a king of compressed wood that cannot be burned\nHassan Naim – Lebanese-Swiss biochemist\nHassan Kamel Al-Sabbah – Lebanese-American electrical and electronic engineer and technology innovator known for receiving 43 patents in television transmission\nMaurice Chehab – archaeologist and museum curator, father of "modern Lebanese archaeology"\nJustine Sergent – cognitive neuroscience researcher\nNiveen Khashab – chemist and professor known for her contributions in the field of drugs and Chemistry, L\'Oréal-UNESCO For Women in Science Awards laureate \nPierre Zalloua – biologist and researcher\nRammal Rammal – condensed matter physicist\n\nSports personalities\n\nAthletes\nSamir Bannout – Lebanese-American professional bodybuilder who won the prestigious Mr. Olympia competition in 1983. Nicknamed the "Lion of Lebanon"\nMaxime Chaya – extreme sports athlete\nZakaria Chihab – sportsman and Olympian\nNabil Choueiri – track and field athlete and Olympian\nMaya Nassar – fitness model\n\nAmerican/Canadian football\nDavid Azzi – football player in the Canadian Football League (CFL)\n\nAutomobile racing\nKhalil Beschir – professional race car driver\nTony Kanaan – professional race car driver\nNoel Jammal – professional race car driver\nFelipe Nasr – professional race car driver\nGraham Rahal – professional race car driver\n\nBaseball\nJoe Lahoud - Lebanese-American retired baseball player who played for in the Major Leagues for over 11 years for 5 different teams(Boston Red Sox, California Angels, Texas Rangers, Milwaukee Brewers and the Kansas City Royals). His 2 sons Joe Jr. and Nick Lahoud played Minor League Baseball.\n\nBasketball\nRony Fahed – basketball player\nMatt Freije – basketball player\nFadi El Khatib – basketball player\nAli Mahmoud – basketball player \nElie Mechantaf – basketball player\nRony Seikaly – Lebanese-American professional basketball player\nJoe Vogel – professional basketball player and member of Lebanon\'s national team\nJackson Vroman – professional basketball player and member of Lebanon\'s national team\n\nIce hockey\nEd Hatoum – former professional hockey player for the Vancouver Canucks\nNazem Kadri – professional hockey player for the Toronto Maple Leafs\n\nPlaying card tournament titleholders\nKassem \'Freddy\' Deeb \nIhsan \'Sammy\' Farha \nJoseph \'Joe\' Hachem\n\nFootball\nFaisal Antar – football (soccer) player\nRoda Antar – soccer player\nMohammed Ghaddar – soccer player in Syria\nWartan Ghazarian – soccer player of Armenian origin\nMoussa Hojeij – soccer player/manager\nYoussef Mohamad – soccer player in Germany \nSoony Saad – soccer player\nJamal Taha – soccer player\n\nSkiing\nIbrahim Jaja\n\nRugby league\nHazem El Masri – Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs player and highest NRL point scorer.\n\nRugby Union\nAhmad Harajly – World Rugby Sevens Series USA Rugby player and first Arab American rugby athlete to represent the USA. Professional athlete for Major League Rugby for the New England Free Jacks\n\nWriters\nMaroun Abboud (1886–1962) – poet and writer\nElia Abu Madi (1890–1957) – poet\nSaid Akl (1912–2014) – poet, writer, and thinker\nNader El-Bizri (living) – philosopher and architect\nButrus al-Bustani (1819–1883) – writer and scholar\nCharles Corm (1894–1963) – writer and businessman\nFawaz Gerges (born 1958) – academic and author\nJoumana Haddad (born 1970) – writer and feminist\nOunsi el-Hajj (1937–2014) – poet\nSalma Hage (born 1942) – writer and cook\nJad Hatem (born 1952) – philosopher and poet \nGibran Khalil Gibran (1883–1931) – artist, author and poet\nElias Khoury (born 1948) – novelist and playwright\nVénus Khoury-Ghata (born 1937) – writer\nAmin Maalouf (born 1949) – novelist\nElia Abu Madi (1890–1957) – poet and publisher\nMago (agricultural writer) – Carthaginian writer, author of an agricultural manual in Punic\nMay Murr (1929–2008) – academic, writer and activist\nJacqueline Massabki (died 2015) – writer and lawyer\nKhalil Mutran (1872–1949) – poet and journalist\nMikha\'il Na\'ima (1889–1988) – religious author and poet\nAmin al-Rihani (1876–1940) – writer and politician\nWidad Sakakini (1913–1991) – writer and feminist\nSanchuniathon - Phoenician author of three lost works\nAvraham Sinai (born 1962) – religious writer\nGabriel Sionita (1577–1648) – Maronite writer and publisher\nAmine Takiedine (1884–1937) – poet and writer\nNassim Nicholas Taleb (born 1960) – essayist\nRania Zaghir (born 1977) – children\'s author\n\nSee also\nLebanese diaspora\nList of Lebanese people (Diaspora)\n\nReferences'},
 {'id': '17191633',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%B3nica%20Ponce%20de%20Le%C3%B3n',
  'title': 'Mónica Ponce de León',
  'text': 'Mónica Ponce de León is an architect, educator, and Dean of the Princeton University School of Architecture. A National Design Award winner, Ponce de León is widely recognized as a pioneer in the application of robotic technology to building fabrication and architecture education. Her interdisciplinary practice, MPdL Studio, has offices in New York, NY, Boston, MA, Princeton, NJ and Ann Arbor, MI. Ponce de León previously served as Dean of the A. Alfred Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan (2008–2015) and as Professor at the Graduate School of Design at Harvard University (1996–2008). Prior to establishing her own practice MPdL Studio in 2011, she was the founding partner with Nader Tehrani in the award-winning firm Office dA.\n\nEarly life and education\nPonce de León is a Venezuelan American, was raised in Caracas, Venezuela, and immigrated to Miami, Florida, with her family after graduating high school. She took English classes and worked in a millwork shop before enrolling at the University of Miami, earning her Bachelor of Architecture degree in 1989. In 1991, she received a Master of Architecture in Urban Design from the Harvard Graduate School of Design. After graduating from Harvard, she held teaching appointments at Harvard University, SCI-Arc, Rhode Island School of Design, University of Houston, and Northeastern University while establishing Office dA.\n\nCareer\n\nHarvard and early works\nPrior to her appointment at Michigan, from 1996 until 2008 Ponce de León was Professor of Architecture, director of the digital lab, and acting architecture program director at Harvard. At Harvard she developed the first robotic fabrication lab in an architecture school in the United States. During her tenure at Harvard, she also held visiting positions at the Southern California Institute of Architecture and the Georgia Institute of Technology, and has given over 60 lectures and symposia on her work, which has been published in over 200 publications worldwide\n\nPonce de León served as Dean the A. Alfred Taubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning at the University of Michigan from 2008 until 2015. At Michigan she developed new educational models that emphasized experimentation. She opened the Liberty Annex, a think tank for faculty creative practices; paired with two competitive grant programs,"Research Through Making" and "Research on the City." At Michigan she also developed the largest robotic fabrication facility in any school of architecture in the United States. Available to both students and faculty for learning, teaching and research, this model has become the standard for other schools of architecture in the country. At Michigan, Ponce de Leon with Associate Dean Milton Curry, also inaugurated a ground breaking architecture preparatory program for high school students in Detroit. In collaboration with several high schools in Detroit, the program offers design studio instruction high school credit in math and the visual arts. By December 2016 close to 200 students had graduated from the program.\n\nMonica Ponce de Leon Studio and dean at Princeton\nAfter the disbanding of Office dA in 2010, Monica Ponce de León established her own practice, MPdL Studio with offices in New York, Boston and Ann Arbor.\n\nIn 2015, Ponce de León announced her departure from Michigan to become the new Dean of Princeton University\'s School of Architecture.\n\nIn 2016, Ponce de León served as co-curator, alongside Log editor Cynthia Davidson, of the exhibition at the United States Pavilion for the 15th International Biennale of Architecture in Venice, Italy. The exhibition, entitled "The Architectural Imagination" and to be organized and hosted by Taubman College, will engage specific sites in the city of Detroit, Michigan and feature projects from 12 teams of architects from across the United States.\n\nNotable projects\n\nAmong others, her projects include: Fabricating Coincidences in New York, Helios House in Los Angeles, Macallen Building and the Interfaith Chapel in Boston, Dining Services at 200 West as well as Conrad Hilton in Lower Manhattan. In 2006 she designed the RISD Fleet Library at the Rhode Island School of Design.\n\nFabricating Coincidences was a 1998 installation in the Museum of Modern Art that serves as an early example of the potential of digital fabrication in architecture. In his review of the exhibition for the New York Times, Herbert Mushamp writes: "\'Congratulations. Grade: A. Humpty Dumpty has a very graceful fall. Propped against the brick wall that encloses the garden along its northern edge, the piece is made of perforated steel plate that has been folded, origami style, into a canopy of cascading metal. The project looks like a staircase, but climbing is not recommended. About halfway up, the horizontal folds start sloping precariously upwards. The piece does nifty visual tricks. Depending on the light, the metal plate can switch from opaque to a semi-transparent scrim. Viewed from straight ahead, the folds collapse into a single plane; as you move around, the forms expand into space, like an escalator for the eye. This may not be masterpiece material, but it\'s an inventive appetizer. These are architects to watch." Of her Dining Services project, Paul Goldberger of The New Yorker writes in 2010, "spectacular cafeteria, with a swooping white plaster ceiling and columns, a modernist take on Gaudi that plays off deftly against Cobb\'s geometric shell."\n\nHonors and awards\n\nAlongside Nader Tehrani, Ms. Ponce de León received both the Young Architects Award in 1997 and the Emerging Voices Award in 2003 from the Architectural League of New York. In 2002, she received an Academy Award in Architecture from the American Academy of Arts and Letters and in 2008 she was named a United States Artist fellow.\n\nIn 2007 Ponce de León received the Cooper-Hewitt National Design Award in Architecture, the first Hispanic architect to receive this honor.\n\nHer work has received numerous awards, including a dozen Progressive Architecture awards, the Harleston Parker Medal (2002), as well as citations from the American Institute of Architects, I.D. Magazine, and the Boston Society of Architects. In 2008, the Macallen Building was named one of the Top Ten Green Projects by the American Institute of Architects Committee on the Environment.\n\nIn 2016 Ponce de Leon was elected to the National Academy of Design.\n\nSee also\nList of Venezuelan Americans\n\nSimon Saldana, son\n\nReferences\n\nFurther reading\nContemporary World Architects: Office dA, by Rodolphe el-Khoury, et al. (Rockport Publishers, 1999)\nSurface Architecture, by David Leatherbarrow and Mohsen Mostafavi (MIT Press, 2005)\nZago Architecture and Office dA: Two Installation, by Eric Owen Moss, et al. (Actar, 2006)\nYoung Architects 7: Situating, by the Architectural League of New York (Princeton Architectural Press, 2006)\nFellowships in Architecture, by Janice Harvey (ed.) and Mónica Ponce de León (foreword) (Oro editions, 2009)\nMonsterpieces: Once Upon a Time . . . of the 2000s!, by Aude-Line Dulliere and Clara Wong (Oro editions, March 2010)\nRobotic Fabrication in Architecture, Art and Design 2014, by Wes McGee (ed.) and Monica Ponce de Leon (ed.) (Springer, March 2014)\nOffice dA: Mónica Ponce de León, Nader Tehrani and Greg Lynn discuss Witte Arts Center, edited by Greg Lynn (Canadian Centre for Architecture, 2017)\n\nExternal links\nMPdL Studio\nRobArch 2014\nA Conversation with Mónica Ponce de León - TCAUP, Portico, Fall 2008\nProfile on Arcspace\nFinding aid for Office dA project records, Canadian Centre for Architecture\n\n1965 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Caracas\nVenezuelan emigrants to the United States\nAmerican women architects\nUniversity of Miami School of Architecture alumni\nHarvard Graduate School of Design alumni\nHarvard Graduate School of Design faculty\nTaubman College of Architecture and Urban Planning faculty\nPrinceton University faculty\n20th-century American architects\n21st-century American architects\n20th-century American women\nAmerican women academics\n21st-century American women'}]

rank_by_tf_idf("Who is the Dean of Northeastern computer science?", 10)

[{'id': '38056',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shawn%20Fanning',
  'title': 'Shawn Fanning',
  'text': 'Shawn Fanning (born November 22, 1980) is an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, and angel investor. He developed Napster, one of the first popular peer-to-peer ("P2P") file sharing platforms, in 1999. The popularity of Napster was widespread and Fanning was featured on the cover of Time magazine.\n\nThe site in its initial free P2P incarnation was shut down in 2001 after the company\'s unsuccessful appeal of court orders arising from its encouraging the illegal sharing of copyrighted material. A paid subscription version of the site followed, and was purchased by Rhapsody on December 1, 2011.  Following his involvement with Napster, he joined, and invested in, a number of early-stage technology startup companies.\n\nComputer career\n\nNapster\nOn June 1, 1999, Fanning released a preliminary beta program of Napster and soon, hundreds of college students at Northeastern were trading music. Sean Parker was the co-founder. They got the name from Shawn\'s Harwich High School nickname "Nappy", in reference to his Afro.  Shawn played on the Harwich Tennis Team.\n\nSnocap\nIn 2002, Fanning was named to the MIT Technology Review TR100 as one of the top 100 innovators in the world under the age of 35. In 2003, he opened a new company, Snocap, along with Jordan Mendelson (Napster\'s Chief Architect), and Ron Conway. The company aspired to be a legitimate marketplace for digital media. However, their partners and the public did not respond well. Customer support was poor, and technical issues were numerous. One of their primary partners, CD Baby, wrote a scathing account of their relationship. In late 2007, Snocap laid off 60% of its workforce. ValleyWag wrote an article that Fanning had long left Snocap and began to work on another venture, Rupture. The ValleyWag article stated that the failure was largely due to Snocap\'s CEO Rusty Rueff and that of former VP Engineering Dave Rowley, who "made a mess of engineering before he was fired". Snocap was looking to sell itself and fast.  In 2008, they found a buyer; imeem acquired Snocap in a fire sale.\n\nRupture\nThe Rupture project was announced in 2007 with seed funding.\n\nIn December 2006, Fanning, along with Co-founder Jon Baudanza, developed Rupture, a social networking tool designed to handle the task of publishing gamers\' individual profiles to a communal space and facilitating communication between World of Warcraft players. Rupture was later acquired by Electronic Arts for $30 million. Fanning\'s career at Electronic Arts was short-lived as a round of layoffs in November 2009 included him and his team at Rupture.\n\nPath\nA few months after Fanning was laid off from Electronic Arts, he started a new company called Path.com. In January 2010, Dave Morin announced he was leaving Facebook, where he was a Senior Platform Manager, to join Fanning and become CEO at Path.\n\nAirtime\nIn 2011 Fanning reunited with Napster cofounder Sean Parker to found Airtime.com. Some of the investors are Ron Conway, Michael Arrington, and Ashton Kutcher. Fanning serves as CEO and Parker as executive chairman.\n\nAirtime launched in June 2012 at a disastrous public event where Parker and Fanning paid huge amounts of money to have celebrities present but the product repeatedly crashed and ultimately failed to work. Greg Sandoval of CNET commented, "To launch his new start-up, Sean Parker should have spent less of his billions on celebrity guests and more of it on fixing his technology."\n\nHelium Systems \nIn 2013 Fanning founded Helium Systems together with Amir Haleem, and Sean Carey. In December 2014, the company announced that it had raised $16 million in funding led by Khosla Ventures, with participation from FirstMark Capital, Digital Garage, Marc Benioff, SV Angel, and Slow Ventures among others.\n\nIn popular culture \nIn 2000, Fanning appeared as a presenter at the MTV Video Music Awards. He appeared wearing a Metallica T-shirt as the Metallica v. Napster, Inc. lawsuit had been filed a few months prior. "For Whom the Bell Tolls" played in the background. When asked where he got the shirt, Fanning stated, "a friend of mine shared it with me." Lars Ulrich was sitting in the audience, and his reaction was shown as feigned boredom.\n\nIn October 2000, Fanning was featured on the cover of Time magazine.\n\nFanning had a cameo appearance as himself in the 2003 film The Italian Job. In the film, Seth Green\'s character Lyle accused Fanning of stealing Napster from him while he was taking a nap in their Northeastern University dorm room. Although other characters see this as mere bragging, a scene shows Fanning in fact creeping over Lyle\'s sleeping body and stealing a  floppy disk.\n\nIn early 2008, Fanning appeared in a Volkswagen commercial directed by Roman Coppola, in which he poked fun at his file-sharing past.\n\nFanning and Napster were the subject of Alex Winter\'s documentary Downloaded in 2013.\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n\n Rupture\n Path\n Airtime\n\n1980 births\nBusinesspeople from Massachusetts\nAmerican computer programmers\nFile sharing\nLiving people\nNortheastern University alumni\nPeople from Brockton, Massachusetts\nPeople from Harwich, Massachusetts\nPeople from Hull, Massachusetts\n21st-century American businesspeople'},
 {'id': '20399818',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth%20Mynatt',
  'title': 'Elizabeth Mynatt',
  'text': 'Elizabeth D. "Beth" Mynatt (born July 12, 1966) is the Dean of the Khoury College of Computer Sciences at Northeastern University. She is former executive director of the Institute for People and Technology, director of the GVU Center at Georgia Tech, and Regents\' and Distinguished Professor in the School of Interactive Computing, all at the Georgia Institute of Technology.\n\nShe is best known for her research in the fields of human-computer interaction, ubiquitous computing, health informatics, and assistive technology. She pioneered creating nonspeech auditory interfaces from graphical interfaces to enable blind computer users to work with modern computer applications. From 2001 to 2005, she was selected to be the associate director of the GVU Center at Georgia Tech, and in 2005 she was appointed director. Her current research explores the implications and opportunities stemming from the pervasive presence of computation in the informal activities of everyday life.\n\nEarly life and education\nMynatt was born in Knoxville, Tennessee. She attended North Carolina State University for her undergraduate studies, graduating summa cum laude with a Bachelor of Science degree in computer science in 1988. She received a master\'s degree in 1989 in Information and Computer Science at the Georgia Institute of Technology. Mynatt went on to receive a Ph.D. at the Georgia Institute of Technology in 1995 in Computer Science where she was advised by James D. Foley. Her thesis, "Audio GUIs: Transforming Graphical User Interfaces into Auditory Interfaces", was a system which transformed applications into auditory interfaces to enable people to experience what interacting with graphical interfaces might be like for a blind user.\n\nCareer\nUpon graduation from Georgia Tech, Mynatt accepted a position as a member of the Research Staff at Xerox PARC. In 1998 she returned to Georgia Tech as an assistant professor and in 2002 became associate professor. From 2004 to 2005 she was director of the Aware Home Research Initiative and from 2006 to 2007 was the associate director of the Health Systems Institute.\n\nMynatt currently directs the GVU Center at Georgia Tech. She also directs the research program in Everyday Computing, examining the human-computer interface implications of having computation continuously present in many aspects of everyday life. Themes in her research include supporting informal collaboration and awareness in office environments, enabling creative work and visual communication, and augmenting social processes for managing personal information. Mynatt is one of the principal researchers in the Aware Home Research Initiative; investigating the design of future home technologies, especially those that enable older adults to continue living independently as opposed to moving to an institutional care setting.\n\nIn home environments, she is interested in using computing technology to increase the independence and capabilities of people and families for domains such as chronic health care, aging in place, and cognitive prosthetics. In office environments, she is interested in supporting fluid collaboration practices by leveraging the integrated design of physical and digital spaces and services with social practices surrounding information sharing.\n\nMynatt has taught courses in Human-Computer Interaction, Everyday Computing, Mobile and Ubuquitous Computing, and Media Computation. For seven years (2000–07) she played a leadership role in the design and management of two new programs: the Ph.D. in Human-Centered Computing and the M.S. program in Human-Computer Interaction. For the HCC Ph.D. program, she co-chaired the first formative committee that charted the possibilities for a new human-centric Ph.D. program, and directed the HCC program from its inception until the fall of 2006. She has published over 100 book chapters, conference publications, and journal articles in top tier locations such as ACM SIGCHI, CSCW, Ubicomp, and Pervasive.\n\nMynatt is an internationally recognized expert in the areas of ubiquitous computing and assistive technologies. She is a Sloan Research Fellow, and her research is supported by multiple grants from the National Science Foundation, including a five-year NSF CAREER award and a two-year IBM Faculty Partnership Award. She was recently awarded a Google Research Award for studying individual approaches to management of diabetes and she has also received awards from IBM, NASA, the NSF, and Siemens. Other honorary awards include the 2001 College of Computing\'s Junior Faculty Research award and the 2003 College of Computing\'s Dean\'s Award. Her work in healthcare has led to invited lectures at Google, Cornell University, and IBM Research among others.\n\nMynatt served as program chair for CHI 2010, the ACM Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems, as well as conference chair for ICAD, UIST, and Ubicomp. She has published dozens of scholarly articles in peer reviewed journals and has given invited presentations at academic conferences such as CHI and Ubicomp. She has over 80 publications in the ACM Digital Library with over 6,000 downloads in the past year. Her visionary article "Charting past, present, and future research in ubiquitous computing" has been cited over 900 times. She has been quoted in a number of major newspapers, including The Washington Post, The Wall Street Journal, and the Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Mynatt is a member of numerous academic journals and professional societies, including IEEE and ACM. She has held membership on a number of Georgia Tech committees, including the Dean Search Committee, the Dean\'s Executive Council, the Graduate Committee, and Faculty Program Coordinator for the HCC PhD and MS HCI programs. She holds four patents for her work in user interfaces and audio systems.\n\nIn 2015 she was named a fellow of the Association for Computing Machinery "for contributions to human-centered computing and to the development of health information technologies." She was named to the 2021 class of Fellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science.\n\nEffective January 2, 2022, she was appointed Dean of the Khoury College for Computer Sciences at Northeastern University.\n\nSelected publications\nCharting past, present, and future research in ubiquitous computing with Gregory Abowd, (2000)\nThe Aware Home: A Living Laboratory for Ubiquitous Computing Research (1999)\nDigital family portraits: supporting peace of mind for extended family members (2001)\nIncreasing Opportunities for Aging in Place (2000)\n\nPersonal life\nMynatt is married to Blair MacIntyre. They have two children, Grace and William (nicknamed Buzz after the Georgia Tech mascot).\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n Mynatt\'s Home Page at Georgia Tech\n Everyday Computing Lab Home Page\n Institute for People and Technology Home Page\n GVU Center Lab Home Page\n\nLiving people\n1966 births\nGeorgia Tech alumni\nNorth Carolina State University alumni\nGeorgia Tech faculty\nAmerican computer scientists\nAmerican women computer scientists\nHuman–computer interaction researchers\nUbiquitous computing researchers\nHealth informaticians\nFellows of the Association for Computing Machinery\nFellows of the American Association for the Advancement of Science\nScientists at PARC (company)\nSloan Research Fellows\nAmerican women academics\n21st-century American women'},
 {'id': '43008651',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bob%20Davis%20%28businessman%29',
  'title': 'Bob Davis (businessman)',
  'text': 'Robert J. ("Bob") Davis (born 1956) is a managing partner of Highland Capital Partners. He is the former chief executive officer of Lycos, which he led since its inception and through its acquisition by Terra at the peak of the dot-com bubble.\n\nEarly life and education\nDavis was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts in 1956. At the age of 10, Davis sold newspapers at a street corner and sold from mail order catalogs as a teenager.\n\nIn 1979, he received a Bachelor of Science degree in Business Administration from Northeastern University, graduating with highest honors. In 1985, he received an MBA from Babson College. In 1999, he received an Honorary Doctorate of Commercial Sciences from Bentley College. He also received an Honorary Doctorate from Northeastern University in 2000.\n\nCareer\nFrom January 1982 to January 1993, Davis worked for Wang Laboratories, a computer manufacturer, as Director of United States Commercial Sales and Marketing and Director of Worldwide Marketing. From January 1993 to June 1995, Davis served as Vice President of Sales at Cambex Corporation, a manufacturer of computer-related products.\n\nSince its inception in June 1995, Davis served as the President and CEO of Lycos. In 1996, 9 months after Lycos was founded, he led the company to the fastest initial public offering in history. Lycos was one of the first profitable internet businesses. As CEO of Lycos, he led the company to acquire more than a dozen websites including Wired.com, HotBot, Tripod.com, WhoWhere, Quote.com, and Matchmaker.com. Davis led the company through its acquisition by Terra for $12.5 billion in stock in 2000. After the Terra acquisition, he served as the CEO of Terra Lycos, the combined company.\n\nIn 2001, Davis left Terra Lycos to join Highland Capital Partners, a venture capital firm. He has served on the boards of John Hancock Financial, Ticketmaster, Lycos, Lycos Europe, Fastclick, Children\'s Hospital Boston, and the Rivers School.\n\nBooks\nIn 2001, Davis wrote a book called Speed is Life: Street Smart Lessons from the Front Lines of Business, which was published by Currency, an imprint of Crown Publishing Group. The memoir focused on practical advice for operating a company. Davis donated his proceeds from the book to the National Center for Missing and Exploited Children.\n\nExternal links\n Technology and Global Democratization, a C-Span interview with Bob Davis on matters relating to internet commerce and regulation, July 2000.\n\nReferences\n\n1956 births\nAmerican computer businesspeople\nAmerican technology chief executives\nAmerican venture capitalists\nBabson College alumni\nBusinesspeople from Massachusetts\nLiving people\nNortheastern University alumni'},
 {'id': '61828191',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl%20W.%20Reid',
  'title': 'Karl W. Reid',
  'text': "Karl W. Reid (born in 1963) is an American writer and engineer, and the first Chief Inclusion Officer of Northeastern University after serving as the longtime chief executive officer of the National Society of Black Engineers. Dr. Reid previously worked on new program development at the United Negro College Fund, as  Associate Dean of Undergraduate Education at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, and in various roles at IBM.\n\nEarly life and education \nReid was born in the Bronx and grew up in Roosevelt, New York. His parents were committed to his education and Reid attended a magnet school. He was an undergraduate student at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he studied materials science and was a Tau Beta Pi scholar. He was a member of the National Society of Black Engineers whilst at MIT. He joined as a freshman and was elected National Chairperson in 1984. After graduating with a master's degree in 1985, Reid joined IBM where he worked in product management and consulting.\n\nResearch and career \nAfter reading Jonathan Kozol's book Savage Inequalities Reid was inspired to bring positive change through education. After twelve years in the computer industry Reid returned to his alma mater, working on education programs for underserved communities in the United States. Whist working at MIT Reid completed a doctorate degree at Harvard University that looked at the relationship between race, identity and academic attainment. He was made head of the Office of Minority Education at MIT and also served as Associate Dean of Undergraduate Education.\n\nReid wanted to work on project at a national scale, so moved to the United Negro College Fund (UNCF). At UNCF he controlled the development of new programs as Vice President of Research and Innovation. The United Negro College Fund supports the United States' 37 historically black colleges and universities.\n\nAs of 2014, Reid has served as Executive Director of the National Society of Black Engineers (NSBE). At NSBE Reid works to end the underrepresentation of black people in engineering courses. He was awarded the Presidential Award for Excellence in Science, Mathematics, and Engineering Mentoring in 2003. He hopes that there will be 10,000 black undergraduate engineers in the United States by 2025. He established the 50K coalition, a collaborative of the NSBE, the American Indian Science and Engineering Society, the Society of Hispanic Professional Engineers and the Society of Women Engineers, that looks to end the underrepresentation of minority students in engineering.\n\nAwards and honours \nIn 2018 Reid was awarded the Transformer Award from the Black Alumni of MIT. He was also awarded the American Association of Engineering Societies Kenneth Andrew Roe Award, which recognises efforts to promote unity between engineering societies.\n\nReferences \n\nAfrican-American engineers\nMIT School of Engineering alumni\nHarvard University alumni\n1963 births\nLiving people\nPeople from Roosevelt, New York\n21st-century African-American people\n20th-century African-American people"},
 {'id': '33433849',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ahmed%20Busnaina',
  'title': 'Ahmed Busnaina',
  'text': "Ahmed A. Busnaina, Ph.D. is the William Lincoln Smith Chair Professor and Director of National Science Foundation’s Nanoscale Science and Engineering Center (NSEC) for High-rate Nanomanufacturing and the NSF Center for Nano and Microcontamination Control at  Northeastern University, Boston, MA.\n\nDr. Busnaina is internationally recognized for his work on nano and micro scale defects mitigation and removal in semiconductor fabrication. He specializes in directed assembly of nanoelements and in the nanomanufacturing of micro and nanoscale devices. Professor Busnaina authored the only Nanomanufacturing Handbook published in 2006, . He authored more than 420 papers in journals, proceedings and conferences.\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Journal of Nanoparticle Research. He also serves on many advisory boards including Samsung Electronics; Chemical Industry Nanomaterials Roadmap, the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors,  Journal of Particulate Science and Technology, Journal of Environmental Sciences (Journal of the IEST), Semiconductor International, Journal of Advanced Applications in Contamination Control.\n\nHe is a fellow of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers, and the Adhesion Society, a Fulbright Senior Scholar and listed in Marquis Who's Who in the World, , Who's Who in America, , Who's Who in science and engineering, , etc.). He was awarded the 2006 Nanotech Briefs National Nano50 Award, Innovator category, the SØren Buus Outstanding Research Award, Northeastern University 2006, the 2005 Aspiration Award, Northeastern University.\n\nYear of birth missing (living people)\nLiving people\nAmerican nanotechnologists\nAmerican mechanical engineers"},
 {'id': '4892961',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Whitney%20%28artist%29',
  'title': 'Richard Whitney (artist)',
  'text': 'Richard Whitney (born 1946 in Vermont), is an American painter, author and educator. Town & Country magazine has named him one of the top dozen portrait painters in America. Fine Art Connoisseur has called him one of "the giants of the field" of figurative painting. Whitney\'s portraits and landscapes hang in over 800 public and private fine art collections worldwide. They include the Anchorage Museum of Art and History; the Anderson House Museum; the Newark Museum; the Pentagon; Harvard, Yale, and Stanford universities; and the Catholic University of Portugal. He has won over 40 regional and national awards as well as three grants from the Elizabeth Greenshields Foundation of Montreal. Whitney was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Fine Arts from the University of New Hampshire in 2015.\n\nWhitney is the author of the book Painting the Visual Impression which summarizes the basic principles of representational painting. First published in 1972, it has been read by thousands of artists world-wide. He is also a co-author of the book Realism in Revolution: The Art of the Boston School. His paintings have also been reproduced in the book Edmund C. Tarbell and the Boston School of Painting.\n\nWhitney graduated Phi Beta Kappa from the University of New Hampshire in 1968. He studied with Sidney F. Willis and with the eminent Boston painter R. H. Ives Gammell for five years. Whitney\'s paintings have been seen on national cable television and have been the subject of numerous newspaper and magazine articles. He has traveled and painted in Europe, Japan, Alaska and the Caribbean and has lectured and conducted workshops throughout the United States. He is listed in many reference books, including Who\'s Who in American Art, Who\'s Who in America, and Who\'s Who in the 21st Century.  Whitney and his artist wife Sandy Sherman live on Crescent Pond in Stoddard, New Hampshire.\n\nProfessional organizations\nAllied Artists of America - Honorary Lifetime Member\nAmerican Artists Professional League - Honorary Lifetime Member\nAmerican Society of Portrait Artists - Chairman Emeritus\nAmerican Society of Classical Realism\nCopley Society - Copley Master\nThe Guild of Boston Artists\n\nAwards, honors\n1970 - 1973\nThree Grants - Elizabeth T. Greenshields Memorial Foundation – Montreal\n\n1975\nThird Gold Medal - Jordan Marsh Show - Boston\n\n1976\nMerit Award – Springfield (MA) Art League National Exhibition\nExcellence Award in Traditional - Cape Cod Art Association All New England\nExhibition Three Awards – Ogunquit (ME) Art Center National Exhibition\nAnonymous Award in Oil - Knickerbocker Artists National Exhibition – New York City\n\n1977\nGrumbacher Award in Oils - Academic Artists National Exhibition – New York City\nFirst in Oil - Cape Cod Art Association All New England Exhibition\n\n1978\nFinalist - American Artist Magazine National Art Competition – New York City\n\n1980\nYankee Sagendorph Award - Copley Society of Boston\nHonorable Mention - Jubilee 350 Competition for New England Artists - Boston\nThe Crescent Gallery, Ltd. Award - Allied Artists National Exhibition – New York City\n\n1982\nThe Margaret Fitzhugh Browne Memorial Portrait Award - Copley Society of Boston\nCover Artist - "American Artist" Magazine - April\n\n1983\nGrumbacher Gold Medal - Guild of Boston Artists Competition\n\n1984\nGold Medal - American Artist Professional League Grand National Exhibition – NYC\nCopley Master Award - Copley Society of Boston\nJuror\'s Choice Award – Springville (Utah) Museum of Art National Salon Show\nAmerican Portrait Society Certification - Los Angeles\n\n1986\nJuror\'s Choice Award - Springville Museum of Art National Salon Show\nDole Award - American Artists Professional League Grand National Exhibition\n\n1987\nSilver Medal - The Society of Illustrators\' 29th Annual Exhibition – New York City\nA. Lassell Ripley Award - Guild of Boston Artists Competition\nMedal "Benemerito" - Catholic University of Portugal\n\n1990\nCommendation - Governor and Executive Council of New Hampshire\n\n1991\nKen Gore Memorial Award - Guild of Boston Artists Competition\n\n1999\nR. H. Ives Gammell Award – Guild of Boston Artists Competition\n\n2000\nAmerican Artist magazine article - April\n\n2002\nEdmund C. Tarbell Award – Guild of Boston Artists Spring Awards Exhibit\nEmeritus Award – American Society of Portrait Artists\n\n2011\nHonorable Mention, Landscape – Art Renewal Center International Salon\n\n2013\nElected Honorary Lifetime Member of the American Artists Professional League and Allied Artists of America\n\n2015\nHonorary Doctor of Fine Arts - University of New Hampshire\n\n2017\n Lifetime Membership to the Copley Society of Art\n Honorable Mention, Portraiture - Art Renewal Center International Salon\n Albert Nelson Marquis Lifetime Achievement Award - Who\'s Who in America\n Lotte Jacobi Living Treasure Award - NH Governor\'s Arts Awards\n\n2018 \n Who\'s Who in the World\n\nExhibits\n(From a list of over 800 public and private collections)\n\nNewark Museum of Art\nSpringville Museum of Art\nKnights of Columbus Museum\nThe Pentagon\nNew Hampshire State House\nWoods Hole Oceanographic Institution\nCatholic University of Portugal\nUniversity of Chicago\nBoston University School of Medicine\nYale School of Medicine\nStanford University School of Medicine\nSaint Anselm College\nFranklin Pierce University\nUniversity of Charleston\nFurman University\nNew England College of Optometry\nBrooklyn Academy of Music\nMassachusetts General Hospital\nBrigham and Women\'s Hospital\nSouth Shore Hospital\nChubb Life America\nNew England Historic Genealogical Society\nSailors Snug Harbor, Sea Level, NC\nPreservation Society of Newport County, RI\nSouth Congregational Church, New Britain, CT\nUnitarian Church, Worcester, MA\nPine Crest School\nBerkshire School\nSt. Johnsbury Academy\nThe Governor\'s Academy\nLoomis Chaffee School\nWheeler School\nData Resources Inc.\nHeublein, Inc.\nNew England Insurance Company\nQuincy Mutual Fire Insurance Company\nNew Hampshire Ball Bearings, Inc.\nRaveneaux Country Club, Houston\nSouth Shore Bank, Quincy, MA\nSkowhegan Bank, Skowhegan, ME\nBank of New Hampshire\nAlain Briottet, French Ambassador to Finland\nKevin B. Harrington, Massachusetts Senate President\nDickie, McCamey & Chilcote, Pittsburgh\nCarroll Jones, Jr., Life magazine illustrator\nMr. & Mrs. John J. Shields, III\nAlfred J. Walker, art dealer\nWilliam A. Coles, art historian\nJan Mitchell, benefactor, Metropolitan Museum of Art\nTanio Nakamura, curator, Tokyo National Museum\nTakezo Hirato, retired CEO, Mazda Yokohama\nSekiya Shirayama, Tokyo\nAnchorage Historical and Fine Arts Museum\nAnderson House Museum, Washington, DC\nAFL–CIO, Washington, DC\nUnited States Department of Labor, Washington, DC\nMassachusetts State House\nNew Hampshire Supreme Court\nStrafford County (NH) Superior Court\nMassachusetts Eye and Ear Infirmary\nKing Edward VII Memorial Hospital, Bermuda\nHarvard University\nMassachusetts Institute of Technology\nDartmouth College\nSt. Johns College\nOhio State University Moritz College of Law\nNortheastern University\nSuffolk University\nMount Ida College\nKeene State College\nMt. Sinai Hospital\nInstitute of Living, Hartford, CT\nEvangelical Theological Seminary Library, Osijek, Croatia\nUnitarian Universalist Association of America\nFirst Parish Church, Weston, MA\nCommunity Church Society, Pepperell, MA\nMercersburg Academy\nPingree School\nCushing Academy\nDublin School\nEaglebrook School\nRobert J. Coelho Middle School, Attleboro, MA\nStanadyne Corporation\nNational Grange Mutual Insurance Company\nHartford Steam Boiler Inspection and Insurance Company\nThe Little Susitna Company, Anchorage\nBattelle Corporation\nSallie Mae\nC&S Corporation\nThe Inn at Sawmill Farm, West Dover, VT\nBeech Hill Farm Hospital, Dublin, NH\nThe late US Senator Thomas J. McIntyre\nThe Honorable Edward J. McCormack, Jr.\nJohn H. Sununu, former White House Chief of Staff\nHelena Hale, actress\nFrederick Hart, Vietnam Memorial sculptor\nJohn Cunningham, VP, Wang Laboratories\nBruce Ferguson, developer of Pegasus rocket\nMr. & Mrs. Frederick C. Ross, noted collectors\nA. Ara Danikian, art dealer\nAbbot Williams Vose, art dealer\nA. Sadeghi-Nejad, former Minister of Culture of Iran\nYasuyuki Nambu, Japanese entrepreneur, Tokyo\nChieko Yamagata, Tokyo\n\nGallery of work\n\nExternal links\n\nPersonal website\n http://www.richardwhitneyportraits.com\n\n20th-century American painters\nAmerican male painters\n21st-century American painters\n21st-century male artists\nAmerican portrait painters\n1946 births\nLiving people\nUniversity of New Hampshire alumni\nPainters from New Hampshire\nPeople from Stoddard, New Hampshire'},
 {'id': '18667528',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clarence%20Major',
  'title': 'Clarence Major',
  'text': 'Clarence Major (born December 31, 1936) is an American poet, painter, and novelist; winner of the 2015 "Lifetime Achievement Award in the Fine Arts", presented by the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation. He was awarded the 2016 PEN Oakland/Reginald Lockett Lifetime Achievement Award.\n\nBiography \nClarence Major was born on December 31, 1936, in Atlanta, Georgia, and grew up in Chicago, Illinois. As a teenager he started drawing and painting, writing poetry and fiction.\n\nIn his early twenties he started publishing his own literary magazine, Coercion Review, which featured poets and writers such as Henry Miller, Kenneth Patchen and Lawrence Ferlinghetti. As a teenager Major was influenced by the monumental Van Gogh Exhibition of Paintings and Drawings at the Art Institute of Chicago, February 1 – April 16, 1950.\n\nAfter a stint in the Air Force he left the Midwest and moved to New York City in December 1966. His first novel, All Night Visitors, was published in 1969 and his first collection of poems, Swallow the Lake, the following year. He briefly worked as a research analyst for Simulmatics, under the direction of sociologist Dr. Sol Chaneles. Major analyzed news coverage of the 1960s riots. He also did field work on the riots, in Detroit and Milwaukee, before turning, in 1967, to teaching.\n\nFirst, he taught in Harlem at the New Lincoln School, in a summer program. He later taught modern American literature courses and creative writing workshops in universities. His first solo exhibition of paintings was at Sarah Lawrence College in the library in the early 1970s. Along with John A. Williams, in 1968, he taught for a stint at Girard College in Philadelphia.\n\nDuring this time Major was also giving public readings of his poetry. He served on the editorial staff of several literary periodicals (such as Caw! and The Journal of Black Poetry) and wrote a regular column for American Poetry Review. He was the first editor of American Book Review. He read his poetry at the Guggenheim Museum, the Folger Theatre and in universities, theaters and cultural centers.\n\nHe joined the Fiction Collective in 1974. Major edited High Plains Literary Review for several years. On a State Department-sponsored trip in 1975 he was a participant at the International Poetry Festival in Struga, Yugoslavia, where he read his work with Leopold Sedar Senghor and other poets from around the world. In 1977, with John Ashbery and other poets from various countries, Major read at the Poetry International in Rotterdam, the Netherlands. Although he had been painting all along, after moving to California in 1989 he showed his paintings more frequently in galleries.\n\nIn 1991 Major served as fiction judge for the National Book Awards. In 1987 he served twice on the National Endowment for the Arts Awards panels; and in 1997–98 he served as judge for the PEN/Faulkner Award. He has judged state-sponsored literary contests in Ohio, New York, Washington, Colorado and California.\n\nMajor is distinguished professor emeritus of 20th-Century American Literature at the University of California at Davis. His literary archives are in the Givens Collection of African American Literature, Anderson Library of Rare Books and Manuscripts, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota. For the most reliable biographical information on Clarence Major see Contemporary Authors, Volume 337, 2013, pages 270–312, .\n\nTeaching\nMajor has taught literature and/or creative writing at Brooklyn College, New York University, Queens College, Sarah Lawrence College, University of Washington, Howard University, University of Maryland, University of Colorado, Temple University, Binghamton University, the University of California at Davis and on a Fulbright-Hays Exchange award he taught American culture at the University of Nice, in France, 1981–1983. He left the University of Colorado in 1989 and he taught at the University of California Davis for eighteen years before his retirement in 2007.\n\nRecognition\nMajor won a National Council on the Arts Award for his poetry collection Swallow the Lake in 1970, and the following year was awarded a New York Cultural Foundation grant for poetry. Reflexe et Ossature (1982), the French translation of Reflex and Bone Structure (1975), was nominated for the Prix Maurice Coindreau (1982). Such Was The Season (1987) was a Literary Guild book club selection in 1988. The same year The New York Times Book Review recommended it on its annual "Summer Reading" list. Painted Turtle: Woman With Guitar (1988) was cited by The New York Times Book Review as a "Notable Book of The Year" 1988. In 1990 his short story collection, Fun & Games, was nominated for the Los Angeles Book Critics Award.\n\nMajor won a Bronze Medal as a finalist for the National Book Award in 1999 for Configurations: New and Selected Poems 1958–1998 (Copper Canyon Press). He won the Pushcart Prize for the short story "My Mother and Mitch", in 1989. In 2002 he won the Stephen Henderson Poetry Award for Outstanding Achievement, presented by the African American Literature and Culture Society. His 1986 novel My Amputations won the Western States Book Award and was republished in 2008 with an introduction by Lawrence Hogue. Dirty Bird Blues won the Sister Circle Book Award in 1999.\n\nMajor was awarded the International Literary Hall of Fame award (Chicago State University) in 2001. He received the "2015 Lifetime Achievement Award in the Fine Arts" from the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation. He was awarded the 26th annual PEN Oakland/Reginald Lockett Lifetime Achievement Award on December 3, 2016. In January 2017, From Now On: New and Selected Poems was nominated for the 2017 Northern California Book Award sponsored by The Northern California Independent Booksellers Association.\n\nIn 2021, Major was inducted into the Georgia Writers Hall of Fame.\n Grant, Struga Yugoslavia International Poetry Festival-U.S. State Department Educational & Cultural Exchange Program, 1975.\n Grant, Fulbright-Hays Inter-University Exchange Award: Franco-American Commission for Educational Exchange—Nice, France, 1981–1983\n Grant, United Kingdom Educational Commission, London, England, 1981.\n Grant, International Communication Agency, American Embassy, London, England, 1982.\n Grant, Commission for Education and Cultural Exchange Between Italy and the U.S. of America, Rome, Italy, 1982.\n Grant, Africa Regional Services, United States International Communication Agency, Paris, France, 1982.\n Grant, IREX (Poland cultural trip) 1984.\n Grant, U.S. Information Service, American Embassy, Paris, France, 1985.\n\nAnthologies\nMajor has edited several anthologies, most recently Calling the Wind: 20th Century African-American Short Stories (1993) and The Garden Thrives: 20th Century African-American Poetry (1996).\n\nHis own work has appeared in the following anthologies: Best American Poetry 2019, The Norton Anthology of American Literature, The Norton Anthology of African-American Literature, Postmodern Poetry in America 1950 to the Present, Men of Our Time: Male Poetry in Contemporary America, Dynamics of Violence, Up Late: American Poetry Since 1970, The World\'s Best Poetry: Supplement IV, Words On The Page, The World In Your Hands, Mirrors: An Introduction to Literature, The Urban Adventures, American Negro Poetry, Where Is Vietnam: American Poets Respond, In A Time of Revolution: Poems From Our Third World, Poems of War Resistance, A Punishment For Peace, Natural Process: An Anthology of New Black Poetry, Black Out Loud: An Anthology of Modern Poems by Black Americans, Inside Outer Space: New Poems From The Space Age, Soulscript: Afro-American Poetry, The Movement Toward a New America, Dices or Black Bones: Black Voices of The Seventies, Black American Literature 1780–Present, Fine Frenzy: Enduring Themes in Poetry, The Modern Age: Literature, The Real Imagination, You Better Believe It: Black Voices in English, Black Spirits: A Festival of New Black Poets in America, New Black Voices, Starting With Poetry, From The Belly of The Shark, The Poetry of Black America: Anthology of the 20th Century, Open Poetry: Four Anthologies of Expanded Poems, The Liberal Art of Interpretation, A New Rhetoric, The Pushcart Prize: The Best of The Small Presses, Contemporary Writing from The Continents, The Point: Where Teaching and Writing Intersect, The Jazz Poetry Anthology; Giavani Poeti Americani (Italy), Heartshape in the Dust: An Anthology of Black American Poetry (Yugoslavia), American Poets Say Goodbye to the 20th Century, Gondola a Signore Signore Gondola: Venice in 20th Century American Poetry (Italy), Govereci Boben (Poland?), The Writing on The Wall, Merry Christmas Baby, "Truth to Power", and others.\nFiction: Children of The Night, American Made, Calling the Wind, The Avant Garde Today: An International Anthology, Statements, Statements 2, The Sound of Writing, Pushcart XV, Breaking Ice, 19 Necromancers From Now, Ten Times Black: Stories From The Black Experience, Not Normal Illinois, American Made, Love Stories and Writing Under Fire: Stories Of The Vietnam War and others.\n\nPeriodicals\nHis fiction, poetry, nonfiction and book reviews have appeared in periodicals, among them: "The American Scholar", The New Yorker, Harvard Review, The New York Times, The New York Times Book Review, The Washington Post Book World, Los Angeles Times Book Review, The American Poetry Review, The Baffler, Catamaran, Peacock Journal, The Black Scholar, The Baltimore Sun Magazine Supplement, Upstate [Rochester] Sunday Magazine, The Denver Post, Hampton Road Guide and Journal, The Rocky Mountain News, The San Jose Mercury News, Essence, The Massachusetts Review, Chelsea, Ploughshares, Witness, Boulevard, Michigan Quarterly Review, Review of Contemporary Fiction, Trace, Negro Digest, The Nickel Review, [Chicago] Sun-Times Showcase, John O\'Hare Journal, American Poetry Review, Kenyon Review, New Myths/MSS, American Review, The Magazine of New Writing, Contact, Folger Poetry Broadside, The Literary Review, Mundus Artium: A Journal of International Literature and the Arts, National Guardian, New York Poetry, The Outsider, Poetry Miscellany, Unmuzzled OX, Yardbird Reader, Works, Callaloo, African American Review, New American Review, Brilliant Corners, A Gathering of The Tribes, Baa Sima (Accra), Black Orpheus (Nigeria), El carno emplumado (Mexico), East and West (India), Fiddlehead (Canada), Gedicht (Antwerp), Interspace (France), In Their Own Words (Italy), New Departures (England), Poetry (England), Pravda (Moscow), Quadrant (Australia), Tautara (Turkey), Vinduet (Norway), and Literatura na Świecie (Poland).\n\nVisual arts\nMajor studied drawing and painting under the direction of painter Gus Nall (1919–1995) from 1952 to 1954. Major also attended sketch and lecture classes during the same period in Fullerton Hall at the Art Institute of Chicago. Among his teachers there was Addis Osborne (1914–2011).\n\nMajor\'s apprentice artwork was first shown to the public in a group show in the mid-1950s at Gales Gallery on Sixty-Third Street, Chicago. The gallery owner, Mrs. Edna Powell Gale, featured the works of local artists.\n\nSolo exhibitions of his work have been held at Pierre Menard Gallery, Harvard Square, Cambridge, University Art Gallery Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Sarah Lawrence College, Kresge Art Museum, East Lansing, Michigan, Hamilton Club Gallery, Paterson, New Jersey, Phoenix Gallery, Sacramento CA, Exploding Head Gallery, Sacramento CA, Blue Hills Gallery, Winters, CA, Main Street Gallery, Winters CA, and many other venues.\n\nHis artwork is in many private collections as well as in several public one: Indiana State University, Terre Haute; Passaic County Community College Permanent Collection of Contemporary Art; the Schacknow Museum of Fine Art, Plantation, Florida; and The Linda Matthews MARBL Collection at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia.\n\nHis paintings have appeared in many group shows at such galleries as John Natsoulas Gallery (Davis, CA), University of Rochester Art Gallery (Rochester, New York), Denenberg Fine Arts Gallery, Los Angeles, Anita Shapolsky Gallery (New York, New York), 40 Acres Gallery (Sacramento, CA), Main Street Gallery (Winters, CA), Nelson Gallery, University of California at Davis.\n\nMany of his paintings have appeared on covers of his own books, among them Myself Painting, Waiting for Sweet Betty, and Down and Up, three poetry collections. His 1979 novel Emergency Exit contains reproductions of his paintings and his essay collection, Necessary Distance, is illustrated with his drawings. A book on his art and literature, Clarence Major and His Art: Portraits of an African-American Postmodernist by Bernard Bell, appeared in 1998. Conversations with Clarence Major by Nancy Bunge was published in 2002. While focused largely on literature, both books contain Major\'s views on painting.\n\nExhibition catalogs: Black: A Celebration of African American Art in Sacramento-Area Collections, 2008; Configurations, paintings by Clarence Major, Pierre Menard Gallery, Harvard Square, Cambridge, MA, 2010; Myself Painting, paintings by Clarence Major, University Gallery, The Center for Performing Arts, Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana, 2011; The Writers\' Brush: An Exhibition of Art Work by Writers by Donald Friedman and John Wronoski, Introduction by Joseph McElroy, New York: Anita Shapolsky Art Foundation, 2014 ().\n\nMajor curated the exhibition of paintings Spirit Made Visible, containing the works of Robert Colescott, John Abduljaami, Mike Henderson, Oliver Jackson, Mary Lovelace O\'Neal, Joe Overstreet, Raymond Saunders, Clarence Major and others, at the John Natsoulas Gallery, Davis, California, May 9–31, 1992.\n\nExhibitions\n Sarah Lawrence College Library, Spring 1974\n First National Bank Gallery, Boulder, January 3–17, 1986\n Kresge Art Museum East Lansing Michigan, September 4 – October 28, 2001\n Schacknow Museum of Fine Art Plantation Florida, April–May 2003\n Exploding Head Gallery Sacramento CA, April 2003, August 2004, July 2006\n Hamilton Club Gallery Paterson New Jersey, November 4 – February 28, 2007\n John Natsoulas Gallery, May 9 – 31, 1992, June 2002, July 1993\n Porter-Troupe Gallery San Diego CA, April 2001\n Blue Hills Gallery Winters CA, April–June 2005\n The Phoenix Gallery Sacramento, March 2006, July 2006\n California Historical Society Museum San Francisco, December 11, 2004 – April 16, 2005\n Pierre Menard Gallery, Harvard Square, Cambridge MA, August 6 – September 3, 2010\n University Gallery Indiana State University Terre Haute, February 2011\n\nTeaching \n\n Teaching Areas of Specialization: Modern and Contemporary Literature in English; African-American Literature; Creative Writing in Poetry; Creative writing in Fiction.\n Creative Writing Instructor, The New Lincoln (Summer) School, Harlem, 1967\n Creative Writing Instructor, Girard College, Philadelphia, 1968 \n Adjunct Instructor, Brooklyn College, CCUNY, 1968–1969, 1973, 1974–75\n Adjunct Instructor New York University, (night school) 1971\n Adjunct Instructor, Queens College, CCUNY, 1972–1973\n Adjunct Instructor, Sarah Lawrence College, 1972-1975\n Assistant Professor, Howard University, Washington D. C., 1974–1976\n Visiting Creative Writer, University of Maryland, College Park, 1975\n Assistant Professor, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, 1976–1977\n Associate Professor, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1977–1981\n Professor, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, 1981–1989  \n Professor, University of California, Davis, 1989–2003\n Distinguished Professor, University of California, 2003–2017\n University of California, San Diego, California, 1981\n University of Nice, France, 1981–1983\n State University of New York Binghamton, 1988\n Temple University, Philadelphia, 1988\n Other academic and writing appointments: Warren Wilson College; Clayton College, Denver; Albany State College, Albany, Georgia; Wisconsin State University, Eau Claire; Cazenovia College, New York; Squaw Valley Community of Writers\n\nEducation \nMajor has attended or received degrees from the following institutions:\n The Art Institute of Chicago (James Nelson Raymond scholar), 1952–54\n Gus Nall Studio, Private Art Lessons, 1950–1954\n The New School for Social Research (French course only), 1971.\n Norwalk Community College, Norwalk Connecticut, 1972.\n Howard University, Washington D.C., 1974–1975 \n State University of New York, Albany, B.S. 1976.\n Union Institute and University, Yellow Springs and Cincinnati, Ohio, Ph.D. 1978.\n\nBibliography \nNovels\n All-Night Visitors, Northeastern University Press (1969, 1998), \n No, Emerson Hall (1973), \n Reflex and Bone Structure (1975, 1996), ; \n Emergency Exit (1979), \n My Amputations (1986, 2008), \n Such Was The Season (1987, 2003), \n Painted Turtle: Woman With Guitar (1988, 2015), \n Dirty Bird Blues, Berkley Publishing Group (1996, 1997), ; \n One Flesh, Kensington (2003), \n The Lurking Place (2021), \n Thunderclouds in the Forecast (2021), \n Dirty Bird Blues (2023), Penguin Classics ISBN-10-0143136593,ISBN-13-978-0143136590\n\nShort stories\n Fun & Games (1990), ; \n Chicago Heat and Other Stories (2016), \n\nPoetry\n Swallow The Lake (1970), , \n Symptoms & Madness (1971), , \n Private Line (1971), Library of Congress card No. 76-160609\n The Cotton Club (1972), \n The Syncopated Cakewalk (1974), \n Inside Diameter: The France Poems (1985), \n Surfaces and Masks (1988), \n Some Observations of a Stranger at Zuni in The Latter Part of The Century (1989), \n Parking Lots (1992), Perishable Press limited edition handset type\n Configurations: New and Selected Poems Copper Canyon Press 1958–1998 (1999)\n Waiting for Sweet Betty Copper Canyon Press (2002), \n Myself Painting, LSU Press (2008), \n Down and Up (2013), ; \n From Now On: New and Selected Poems 1970–2015 (2015), \n My Studio LSU Press (2018), \n Sporadic Troubleshooting (2022), , \n\nNonfiction\n Dictionary of Afro-American Slang (1970),  Library of Congress Card Number 79-130863\n Black Slang: A Dictionary of Afro-American Talk, London: Routledge (1971),  \n The Dark and Feeling: Black American Writers and Their Work (1974)\n Juba to Jive: A Dictionary of African-American Slang (1994), \n Necessary Distance: Essays and Criticism (2000), \n Come by Here: My Mother\'s Life, Wiley (2002), \n Configurations Paintings by Clarence Major (2010), limited edition exhibition catalogue\n Myself Painting Paintings by Clarence Major (2011), limited edition exhibition catalogue\n Clarence Major and His Art: Portraits of an African-American Postmodernist, ed. Bernard W. Bell (2001), \n The Paintings and Drawings of Clarence Major (2019), \n\nAnthologies\n The New Black Poetry,  (1969).\n Calling The Wind: 20th Century African-American Short Stories, Harper Collins (1993), \n The Garden Thrives: 20th Century African-American Poetry, Harper Collins (1996), \n The Essential Clarence Major (2020), \n\n References \n\n Biographical, critical, and professional information on Clarence Major \n Byerman, Keith E., The Art and Life of Clarence Major, University of Georgia Press, 2012, \n Bell, Bernard W. (ed.), Clarence Major and His Art: Portraits of an African-American Postmodernist, 2001, \n Bunge, Nancy (ed.), Conversations with Clarence Major, University Press of Mississippi, 2002, \n Dickson-Carr, Darryl, The Columbia Guide To Contemporary African American Fiction, 2005, \n Contemporary Authors Volume 337, 2013; ; revised and extended autobiographical essay, pp.\xa0270–312\n Contemporary Authors Volume 21–24R\n Contemporary Authors Autobiographical Series volume 6\n Contemporary Authors New Revision Series, volumes 13, 25, 53, 82\n Contemporary Literary Criticism, volumes 3, 19, 48\n Contemporary Novelists (St. James Press/ Gale), 4, 5, 6, 7\n Contemporary Poets (St. James Press/ Gale) edition 5\n Mystery and Suspense Writers (Charles Scribner\'s Sons/ Gale)\n Black Writers 2, 3\n Black Literature Criticism, edition 1:2\n Benet\'s Reader\'s Encyclopedia of American Literature, first edition, Harper Collins (1991)\n Being and Race by Charles Johnson (Indiana University Press) 1990, \n Black Male Fiction and the Legacy of Caliban by James W. Coleman (University of Kentucky Press, 2001)\n Black American Writers Past and Present (1975)\n Black Imagination and The Middle Passage edited by Maria Diedrich et al, Oxford, \n Broadside Authors and Artists (1974)\n Contemporary African-American Novelists (Greenwood, 1999)\n Contemporary Black Biography (Gale, 1995)\n Clark, Keith, Contemporary Black Men\'s Fiction and Drama (Indiana) 2001, \n Cyclopedia of World Authors. Third edition, Volume 5 (Salem Press, 1997)\n Mackey, Nathanial, Discrepant Engagement: Dissonance, Cross-Culturality, and Experimental Writing (Cambridge)\n Dictionary of Literary Biography Volume 33 (Gale, 1984)\n African American National Biography (2012)\n Africana:  The Encyclopedia of the African and African American Experience, Second Edition\n A Directory of American Poets (ongoing)\n Fabre, Michel, and John A. Williams, A Street Guide to African-Americans in Paris (Afram, 1996)\n Directory of American Scholars (1982, 1999, 2002)\n Encyclopedia of American Literature (1999)\n Encyclopedia of World Literature in the 20th Century (Third edition St. James Press, 1999)\n Finkenstaedt, Rose L. H., Face to Face (Morrow)\n Fabre, Michel, From Harlem to Paris (University of Illinois Press, 1991)\n Byerman, Keith, Fingering the Jagged Grain (University of Georgia Press)\n In Black and White: A Guide to Magazine Articles, Newspaper Articles, and books etc. (Third edition 1980)\n The International Who\'s Who (ongoing)\n Brennan, Jonathan, When Brer Rabbit Meets Coyote: African-Native American Literature (University of Illinois Press, 2003), \n Who\'s Who in the World 29th Edition 2012\n Who\'s Who in America (ongoing)\n Who\'s Who Among African Americans (ongoing)\n Who\'s Who Among Black Americans (ongoing)\n Who\'s Who in U. S. (1988)\n Who\'s Who in the Media and Communications (1997)\n Who\'s Who in the West (Marquis/ ongoing)\n Who\'s Who in Writers, Editors and Poets (1992)\n Who\'s Who in Entertainment International Who\'s Who in Poetry (ongoing)\n People Weekly February 7, 1994, Volume 41, Number 5\n Fabre, Michel, La Rive Noire (Lieu Commun)\n Larousse Dictionary of Writers The Lincoln Library of Language Arts (Frontier Press, 1978)\n Salzman, Jack, Major Characters in American Fiction (A Henry Holt Reference Book, 1994), \n Magill, Frank N., Masterpieces of African-American Literature (Harper Collins)\n Modern American Literature (Fifth edition 1999)\n Murry, Rolland, Our Living Manhood (Penn)\n The Negro Almanac (ongoing)\n Bell, Bernard, The Afro-American Novel and its Tradition (U Mass)\n Bell, Bernard, The Contemporary African American Novel (U Mass)\n King, L., and L. F. Selzer (eds), New Essays on The African American Novel (2008)\n Cornis-Pope, Marcel, Narrative Innovation and Cultural Rewriting in the Cold War Era and After The Oxford Companion to African American Literature (Oxford University Press, 1997)\n The Concise Oxford Companion to African American Literature The Oxford Companion to Twentieth-Century Literature in English (Oxford University Press, 1996)\n Valade, R. M., The Essential Black Literature Guide (Visible Ink)\n The Schomburg Center Guide to Black Literature (Gale, 1996)\n Selected Black American, African, and Caribbean Authors (1985)\n Selected Black American Authors (1977)\n Seems Like Murder by Adam Gussow (University of Chicago Press)\n Southern Black Creative Writers 1829–1953 (Greenwood Press, 1988)\n McCaffery, Larry, Some Other Frequency (University of Pennsylvania Press)\n The Writers Directory (ongoing)\n The Poet\'s Encyclopedia Collier\'s Encyclopedia Jimoh, Yemisi, Spiritual, Blues, and Jazz People in African-American Fiction (University of Tenn Press)\n Klinkowitz, Jerome, The Practice of Fiction in America Klinkowitz, Jerome, and Roy Behrens, The Life of Fiction (University of Illinois Press)\n JKlinkowtz, Jerome, Literary Disruptions (University of Illinois Press)\n Klinkowitz, Jerome, Keeping Literary Company (SUNY)\n Hathaway, Heather, Josef Jarab, and Jeffrey Melnick, Race and the Modern Artist (Oxford University Press, 2003)\n Smith, M. W., Reading Simulacra Soitoes, Stephens F., The Blues Detective: A Study of African-American Detective Fiction Platt, Len, and Lee Upstone, Postmodern Literature and Race. New York and London: Cambridge University Press, \n Reed, Anthony, Freedom Time: The Poetics and Politics of Black Experimental Writing (the Callaloo African Diaspora Series), \n Mullen, Harryette, and Hank Lazer, Cracks Between What We Are and What We Are Supposed To Be: Essays and Interviews, , August 6, 2012\n Newton, Keith, The Columbia Granger Index to Collected Works. New York and London: Columbia, \n Smetherst, James, The Black Arts Movement: Literary Nationalism in the 1960s and 1970s, \n Levine, Caroline, Forms: Whole, Rhythm, Hierarchy...\'\' Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2015,\n\nExternal links \n \n \n \n \n  in the Givens Collection, Anderson Library, University of Minnesota\n\nLiving people\n1936 births\n20th-century African-American painters\n20th-century American male writers\n20th-century American novelists\n20th-century American poets\n20th-century American painters\n21st-century African-American artists\n21st-century male artists\n21st-century American essayists\n21st-century American male writers\n21st-century American novelists\n21st-century American painters\n21st-century American poets\nAmerican male novelists\nAmerican male painters\nAmerican male poets\nAnthologists\nBinghamton University faculty\nBrooklyn College faculty\nNovelists from New York (state)\nPainters from California\nUniversity of California, Davis faculty\nWriters from California\n20th-century African-American writers\n21st-century African-American writers'},
 {'id': '38629661',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gillian%20Gill',
  'title': 'Gillian Gill',
  'text': 'Gillian Catherine Gill (née Scobie, born June 12, 1942) is a Welsh-American writer and academic who specializes in biography. She is the author of Agatha Christie: The Woman and Her Mysteries (1990); Mary Baker Eddy (1998); Nightingales: The Extraordinary Upbringing and Curious Life of Miss Florence Nightingale (2004); We Two: Victoria and Albert, Rulers, Partners, Rivals (2009) and Virginia Woolf: And the Women Who Shaped Her World (2019).\n\nBorn in Cardiff, Wales, Gill attended Cardiff High School for Girls and graduated from the University of Cambridge with a first-class honours degree in French, Italian, and Latin. In March 1972 she obtained her Ph.D., also from Cambridge, for a thesis entitled André Malraux: A Study of a Novelist. After marrying, she emigrated to the United States and taught at Northeastern University, Wellesley, Harvard, and Yale, where she was a fellow of Jonathan Edwards College and director of the Women\'s Studies Program.\n\nWorks\nBiographies\nAgatha Christie: The Woman and Her Mysteries, Free Press, 1990.\nMary Baker Eddy, Perseus Books, 1998.\nNightingales: The Extraordinary Upbringing and Curious Life of Mods Florence Nightingale, Random House, 2004.\nWe Two: Victoria and Albert, Rulers, Partners, Rivals, Ballantine Books, 2009.\nVirginia Woolf: And the Women Who Shaped Her World, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019.\n\nTranslations\nLuce Irigaray, Speculum of the Other Woman, Cornell University Press, 1985.\nLuce Irigaray, Marine Lover of Friedrich Nietzsche, Columbia University Press, 1991.\nLuce Irigaray, An Ethics of Sexual Difference, Cornell University Press, 1993.\nLuce Irigaray, Sexes and Genealogies, Columbia University Press, 1993.\nLucienne Frappier-Mazur, Writing the Orgy: Power and Parody in Sade, University of Pennsylvania Press, 1996.\n\nNotes\n\nExternal links\n\nInterview with Gillian Gill, Discussing Creativity, 2011 (video).\nGill, Gillian. "Mrs. Eddy’s Voices", New York Review of Books, June 29, 2000.\nGill, Gillian. "Excerpt from We Two", The New York Times, June 19, 2009.\nReviews\nJarvis, Claire. "Beholding Virginia Woolf Through the Women in Her Life", New York Times, December 20, 2019 (review of Gill\'s Virginia Woolf).\nLeddy, Chuck. "The life, love of Britain’s Victorian power couple", Boston Globe, September 5, 2009 (review of Gill\'s We Two).\nMarshall, Megan. "Married With Children", The New York Times, June 19, 2009 (review of Gill\'s Nightingales).\nMoore, Charlotte. "It was a life of constant wrestling", The Daily Telegraph, September 14, 2004 (review of Gill\'s Nightingales).\nMortimer, John. "Murder Most Tidy", The New York Times, October 14, 1990 (review of Gill\'s Agatha Christie).\n\nBritish women writers\nAmerican women writers\n1942 births\nLiving people\n21st-century American women'},
 {'id': '21256058',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtney%20Hunt',
  'title': 'Courtney Hunt',
  'text': "Courtney Hunt (born 1964) is an American director and screenwriter. Her debut feature film, Frozen River, won the Grand Jury Prize at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.\n\nEarly life and education\nHunt was raised in Memphis and Nashville, Tennessee by a single mother. Hunt attended The Field School in Washington, D.C. before following her mother's educational path and attending law school at Northeastern University.  She then graduated in 1994 from New York's Columbia University in film when she realized law was not an interest for her.  Even though law was not a field she would be going into, it gave her a new perspective on the world.  In an interview with Film Catcher on YouTube, Hunt stated that law school gave her the opportunity and experience of attending co-op jobs that allowed her to work for a federal judge and a criminal defence firm.  Her husband would give her murder appeals from which she learned about dialogue and point of view from the transcripts which built onto her knowledge of film and how to write screenplays.  Shortly after graduating from her film class, Hunt began to write and develop the story for her film Frozen River, by researching the Mohawk people.\n\nCareer\nHunt directed and wrote the screenplay for Frozen River, a film starring Melissa Leo, Misty Upham, and Charlie McDermott  in 2008. Frozen River was originally a short film and it first premiered in 2004 at the New York Film Festival.  She then turned Frozen River into a feature-length film.  It was nominated in 2009 at the 81st Academy Awards, and it was also nominated for the 24th Independent Spirit Awards. It won the Grand Jury Prize at the 2008 Sundance Film Festival.\n\nHunt is a film screenwriter and director, but she also wants to be seen as a director for hire so that filmmakers could see her in control of both aspects.\n\nInfluence\nHunt has said in an interview with David Jenkins that Argentinean director Lucrecia Martel is a filmmaker who inspires her.  She met Martel at the Sundance Film Festival.\n\nFrozen River\nThe development and writing of Frozen River was a lengthy process for Hunt.  She began writing the film after her graduation from college and put the story away since she was not convinced that she had found the right angle for the story at that moment.  Many years later, she turned her initial idea into a poem and enlarged it into a screenplay for a short film and then for a feature-length film.  At first, her idea of the story was going to be about the Mohawk People trafficking cigarettes across the Canada–US border, but it then became a story about smuggling illegal immigrants from Canada into America.  Hunt has said in an interview with Women and Hollywood that this film is based on a real situation where the smugglers drive across the St. Lawrence River when it is frozen.  In this film, she believes that she is able to show people rural communities that they may have forgotten about.  Frozen River was an independent film that had achieved commercial success at the box-office in the United States, as well as in France and Spain.  The film was pushed back by a few years due to the 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center.  She did not want to make and release the film around this time because she believed that people would not sympathize with these immigrants or smugglers and that the audience members would see it as a way for people to help others into the country.\n\nThe Whole Truth\nShe directed The Whole Truth (2016), a thriller film starring Keanu Reeves, Renée Zellweger, Gugu Mbatha-Raw, Gabriel Basso and Jim Belushi.  Reeves is a defense attorney in the film which follows the court case of a murder.  The film was originally supposed to star Skyfall actor, Daniel Craig, who then abruptly dropped out of the film.  The lead role then went to Reeves.\n\nPersonal life\nHunt is married to Donald Harwood, who managed to raise nearly $1 million to fund the film, Frozen River. She has a daughter.\n\nOn her views of women in the film business, she believes women can be talked out of becoming a director. To her, she finds that it is easier for women to do smaller roles on the film set rather than become a director.\n\nFilmography\n Frozen River (2008)\n The Whole Truth (2016)\n\nAwards and nominations\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links\n \n\n1964 births\nAmerican film directors\nAmerican screenwriters\nAmerican women film directors\nLiving people\nAmerican women screenwriters\nPlace of birth missing (living people)\nThe Field School alumni\n21st-century American women"},
 {'id': '47313313',
  'url': 'https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuzhikalail%20M.%20Abraham',
  'title': 'Kuzhikalail M. Abraham',
  'text': "Kuzhikalail M. Abraham is an American scientist, a recognized expert on lithium-ion and lithium-ion polymer batteries and is the inventor of the ultrahigh energy density lithium–air battery. Abraham is the principal of E-KEM Sciences in Needham, Massachusetts and a Professor at the Northeastern University Center for Renewable Energy Technologies, Northeastern University, in Boston, Massachusetts.\n\nEarly life\nBorn in 1945 as the oldest of 9 children, Abraham received his primary and secondary school education in Ranny, Kerala, India. Abraham completed his bachelors and masters in Chemistry from St. Berchmans College, Changanassery where he was the Thevercad gold medalist (awarded to the highest ranking student graduating with a B.Sc degree in Chemistry) in 1965. He received a national merit scholarship from the government of India for the M.Sc. degree studies from 1965–67.\n\nAbraham was awarded a Ph.D. in Chemistry in 1973 from Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts. Tufts recognized him in 2017 with its Most Outstanding Achievement and Services Award for an alumnus.\n\nAbraham conducted post-doctoral research at Vanderbilt University and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology from 1973–75. He published his early research concerned with inorganic materials synthesis, NMR spectroscopy, and materials analysis and characterization.\n\nCareer\nAbraham is the author of more than 200 journal articles and fifteen patents on lithium and lithium-ion battery materials and performance, meeting proceedings and book chapters. His opinions on Li-ion battery materials, performance and safety aspects are sought by news organizations such as Wired Magazine (after the Boeing 787 Li-ion battery Fires), and the Chemical and Engineering News of the American Chemical Society and Wall Street Journal (on the announcement of Tesla Motors to build its Li-ion battery Giga Factory.  He is also a professor in the chemistry department at Northeastern University. His contributions to lithium and lithium ion batteries have been recognized by the Electrochemical Society by awarding him the Battery Research Award for outstanding contributions to primary and secondary lithium batteries, and election as a Fellow of the Electrochemical Society. In addition, the Electrochemical Society recognized KM's contributions to the Society and to the advancement of battery technologies by hosting a podcast featuring his scientific career in its Master Series on the society website. He is also a Fellow of the Royal Society of Chemistry. The International Battery Association (IBA) recognized Abraham in 2018 with the Yeager Award for his Distinguished and Pioneering Contributions to Rechargeable Lithium Batteries. Abraham is listed in Marquis Who's Who in America, Who is Who in the World, Who is Who in Frontiers in Science and Technology and, Who is Who in Emerging Leaders in America. Abraham was recognized by The Kerala Center, a social organization located in Elmont, New York with the Outstanding Achievement Award for Applied Science in 2011.\n\nAbraham served as Chair of the Battery Division and a member of Board of Directors of the Electrochemical Society from 2006–2008. He was previously vice chair, secretary and treasurer of the battery division of the Electrochemical Society from 2000-2006 and served as Chair of its Battery Research Award Committee in 2009. Abraham was also Chair, Vice Chair, Secretary and Treasurer of the Boston Local Section of the Electrochemical Society from 1983 to 1987.\n\nHe is a Member of the American Chemical Society, Royal Society of Chemistry, Sigma Xi9, and Electrochemical Society. He is also a member of Board of Governors of the Kerala Development and Innovation Council (K-DISC) in its inaugural organization formed in March 2018.\n\nAbraham is a pioneer in the research and development of rechargeable lithium and lithium-ion batteries. His research to demonstrate a practical rechargeable lithium battery began in the late nineteen seventies when no such rechargeable batteries existed. He and his colleagues pursuant to the development of stable electrolytes to recharge the lithium electrode  demonstrated one of the first sealed high capacity rechargeable lithium battery exhibiting several hundred charge/discharge cycles, a feat not accomplished until that time. This work was the forerunner to the commercially successful Li-ion batteries. Another contribution of Abraham and his colleagues involved the development of highly conductive gel polymer electrolytes and those supported on micro-porous polymer membranes. Today such separator-embedded gel polymer electrolytes are used to build the commercially successful lithium-ion polymer batteries. Other pioneering contributions of Abraham include rechargeable sodium battery chemical couples that operate at moderately high temperatures, the very high energy density non-aqueous lithium-sulfur battery, the ultrahigh energy density non-aqueous lithium-air battery,  and the fundamental principles underlying the concept of chemical over charge protection of rechargeable lithium and Li-ion batteries. The research and development of lithium-air batteries is pursued world-wide for portable power, electric vehicles and large scale energy storage. His unique background encompasses both the fundamental science and engineering development of advanced batteries.\n\nIn 2022 Dr.Abraham established an endowment fund at his alma mater, St. Berchmans College,  \nChanganassery, Kerala. The fund was used to  build a Smart Class room in the  chemistry department in honor of Kuzhikalayil Family, and for Scholarships to needy undergraduate students.\n\nBooks \n M. Winter, K. M. Abraham, D. H. Doughty, Z. Ogumi, N. J. Dudney (2010). Rechargeable Lithium-ion Batteries. Electrochemical Society. \n B. Scrosati, K. M. Abraham, W. A. van Schalkwijk, J. Hassoun (2013). Lithium Batteries: Advanced Technologies and Applications. John Wiley & Sons Inc. \n M. Doyle, E. Takeuchi, K. M. Abraham (2001). Rechargeable Lithium Batteries: Proceedings of the International Symposium. Electrochemical Society. \n K.M. Abraham, High Power batteries for Hybrid EV and Portable Power (2009), The Electrochemical Society, \n A. Manthiram, K. M. Abraham, J. Xu, T. Abe, J.-I. Yamaki,  Rechargeable Lithium and Lithium Ion Batteries, The Electrochemical Society (2009) \n K. Zaghib, T.Duong, J. Prakash,A.  Landgrebe, K. M. Abraham, I. B. Weinstock, Characterization and Prevention of Failure Modes of Lithium Ion Batteries in Transportation (2008)\n\nReferences\n\nExternal links \n Northeastern University news on 6-6-2013\n Kerala Centre to Honor Six at Awards Banquet 2011\n Northeastern University Center for Renewable Energy Technologies\n K.M. Abraham on the Invention of Li-air and Other Lithium Batteries\n\nLithium-ion batteries\nLiving people\n1945 births\nAmerican academics of Indian descent"}]

Neural Embeddings

from transformers import AutoTokenizer, AutoModel
import torch

# Load pre-trained BERT model and tokenizer
tokenizer = AutoTokenizer.from_pretrained('bert-base-uncased')
model = AutoModel.from_pretrained('bert-base-uncased')

# Ensure the model is in evaluation mode
model.eval()

/Users/arjun/miniconda3/lib/python3.11/site-packages/transformers/tokenization_utils_base.py:1601: FutureWarning: `clean_up_tokenization_spaces` was not set. It will be set to `True` by default. This behavior will be depracted in transformers v4.45, and will be then set to `False` by default. For more details check this issue: https://github.com/huggingface/transformers/issues/31884
  warnings.warn(
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `beta` will be renamed internally to `bias`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.
A parameter name that contains `gamma` will be renamed internally to `weight`. Please use a different name to suppress this warning.





BertModel(
  (embeddings): BertEmbeddings(
    (word_embeddings): Embedding(30522, 768, padding_idx=0)
    (position_embeddings): Embedding(512, 768)
    (token_type_embeddings): Embedding(2, 768)
    (LayerNorm): LayerNorm((768,), eps=1e-12, elementwise_affine=True)
    (dropout): Dropout(p=0.1, inplace=False)
  )
  (encoder): BertEncoder(
    (layer): ModuleList(
      (0-11): 12 x BertLayer(
        (attention): BertAttention(
          (self): BertSdpaSelfAttention(
            (query): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=768, bias=True)
            (key): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=768, bias=True)
            (value): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=768, bias=True)
            (dropout): Dropout(p=0.1, inplace=False)
          )
          (output): BertSelfOutput(
            (dense): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=768, bias=True)
            (LayerNorm): LayerNorm((768,), eps=1e-12, elementwise_affine=True)
            (dropout): Dropout(p=0.1, inplace=False)
          )
        )
        (intermediate): BertIntermediate(
          (dense): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=3072, bias=True)
          (intermediate_act_fn): GELUActivation()
        )
        (output): BertOutput(
          (dense): Linear(in_features=3072, out_features=768, bias=True)
          (LayerNorm): LayerNorm((768,), eps=1e-12, elementwise_affine=True)
          (dropout): Dropout(p=0.1, inplace=False)
        )
      )
    )
  )
  (pooler): BertPooler(
    (dense): Linear(in_features=768, out_features=768, bias=True)
    (activation): Tanh()
  )
)

def get_bert_embedding(text: str) -> torch.Tensor:
    # Tokenize the input text
    inputs = tokenizer(text, return_tensors="pt", padding=True, truncation=True, max_length=512)
    
    # Run the model
    with torch.no_grad():
        outputs = model(**inputs)
    
    # Get the last hidden state
    last_hidden_state = outputs.last_hidden_state
    
    # Get the embedding of the last token (excluding padding tokens)
    last_token_embedding = last_hidden_state[0, -1]
    return last_token_embedding

query_embed = get_bert_embedding("Who is the Dean of Northeastern computer science?")

BETH = """
Elizabeth D. "Beth" Mynatt (born July 12, 1966) is the Dean of the Khoury College of Computer Sciences at Northeastern University.[1] She is former executive director of the Institute for People and Technology, director of the GVU Center at Georgia Tech, and Regents' and Distinguished Professor[2][3] in the School of Interactive Computing, all at the Georgia Institute of Technology.

She is best known for her research in the fields of human-computer interaction, ubiquitous computing, health informatics, and assistive technology. She pioneered creating nonspeech auditory interfaces from graphical interfaces to enable blind computer users to work with modern computer applications. From 2001 to 2005, she was selected to be the associate director of the GVU Center at Georgia Tech, and in 2005 she was appointed director. Her current research explores the implications and opportunities stemming from the pervasive presence of computation in the informal activities of everyday life.
"""

CARLA = """
Carla E. Brodley is a computer scientist specializing in machine learning. Brodley is a Fellow of the ACM, the Association for the Advancement of Artificial Intelligence (AAAI), and the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). She is the Dean of Inclusive Computing at Northeastern University,[1] where she serves as the Executive Director for the Center for Inclusive Computing and holds a tenured appointment in Khoury College of Computer Sciences. Brodley served as dean of Khoury College from 2014-2021. She is a proponent for greater enrollment of women and under-represented minorities in computer science.[2][3]

Education and career
Brodley is a 1985 graduate of McGill University.[4] At McGill, she initially chose to major in English, quickly switching to economics,[4] but switched again to a double major in mathematics and computer science after taking and enjoying a computer programming course as a sophomore.[2] After working as a consultant and computer programmer in Boston, she returned to graduate school, initially planning only to work for a master's degree in artificial intelligence, but continuing there for a Ph.D.[4] under the supervision of Paul Utgoff.[2]

After finishing her doctorate in 1994, she joined the electrical engineering faculty of Purdue University School of Electrical and Computer Engineering. She moved from Purdue to Tufts University in 2004, and became chair of the department of computer science at Tufts from 2010 to 2013,[5][4] also holding an affiliation with the Clinical and Translational Science Institute at Tufts Medical Center.[4] She moved again from Tufts to Northeastern in 2014.[1]
"""

SHAWN = """
Shawn Fanning (born November 22, 1980) is an American computer programmer, entrepreneur, and angel investor. He developed Napster, one of the first popular peer-to-peer (P2P) file sharing platforms, in 1999. The popularity of Napster was widespread and Fanning was featured on the cover of Time magazine.[1]

The site in its initial free P2P incarnation was shut down in 2001 after the company's unsuccessful appeal of court orders arising from its encouraging the illegal sharing of copyrighted material. A paid subscription version of the site followed, and was purchased by Rhapsody on December 1, 2011. Following his involvement with Napster, he joined, and invested in, a number of early-stage technology startup companies.

Computer career
Napster
On June 1, 1999, Fanning released a preliminary beta program of Napster and soon, hundreds of college students at Northeastern were trading music.[2] Sean Parker was the co-founder. They got the name from Shawn's Harwich High School nickname "Nappy", in reference to his hair texture. Shawn played on the Harwich tennis team.
"""

beth_embed = get_bert_embedding(BETH)
carla_embed = get_bert_embedding(CARLA)
shawn_embed = get_bert_embedding(SHAWN)

normalized_beth = beth_embed / beth_embed.norm()
normalized_carla = carla_embed / carla_embed.norm()
normalized_query = query_embed / query_embed.norm()
normalized_shawn = shawn_embed / shawn_embed.norm()

normalized_beth.dot(normalized_query)

tensor(0.2355)

normalized_carla.dot(normalized_query)

tensor(0.2171)

normalized_shawn.dot(normalized_query)

tensor(0.1999)